A Practical and Creative View of Management and Organizational Behavior

The disadvantages of planning with predefined goals, imply advantages in directional planning. The disadvantages of defining goals include all of the following. It can result in an excessive focus on the goal, which can result in missing opportunities that were not part of the defined goal. It can interfere with or prevent creativity. The excessive focus on the goal can even interfere with good health habits in some cases. A failure in obtaining predefined goals can be discouraging to all concerned. When goals are obtained earlier than the planned time frame, the result might encourage employees to take it easy and not do much work, until the next goal is defined. And as already stated, it is often not possible to define any realistic goal when the situation is unstable or unpredictable. Of course, the above disadvantages do not manifest in all cases.

The primary disadvantages of directional planning, without predefined goals, imply advantages in defining goals. The disadvantages of this type of planning include all of the following. The planned activities, of directional planning, might add up to a zero or negative result. That is, all involved can be working with maximum effort, performing many tasks, but the actual accomplishment might have little or no value, or the final result can be highly dysfunctional. It can be difficult to measure efficiency in a meaningful way without a predefined goal. It can be difficult to make corrections and improvements based on feedback. Feedback is likely to be most effective when it is based on a predefined goal, which involves assessing how close to the goal the individual or organization came. Thus, partial and even total failures as well as success, in relation to a predefined goal, can indicate valuable information in making improvements in performance. This information is only obtained if a goal is defined.

Thus, plans based on precisely defined goals and directional planning are both valuable tools. Both of these tools have their specialized utility in specific situations.

Many of us might know the basic ideas of directional planning from personal experience. When our lives were in a predictable state, we were more likely to set goals that we were able to achieve. When our circumstances were not in a predictable state, we were not able to plan specific goals that we were able to achieve, or if we did obtain the goal it was at a point in time later than we planned. People who are undergoing a crisis are probably less likely to engage in goal directed planning, unless it is essential and the outcome of the goal is predictable. They may plan the basic activities they intend to carry out, without defining specific goals.

Of course, one can argue that every type of planning relates to a goal. Such an argument would be based on the assumption that the goal has been defined by the planned actions or on an unconscious level. One can further argue that the direction that McCaskey discussed is a type of goal. Such an argument is based on a generalized definition of the word goal. The argument is basically a good one. However, it misses the very important and useful idea expressed by McCaskey. (It is not always feasible to define and successfully obtain specific goals under certain unstable conditions. Under such conditions it might be more functional to plan without specifically defining a goal.)

A modification of the ideas expressed by McCaskey can be based on a continuum. That is, planning can involve goals that range from extremely specific to goals or general directions that are extremely general and undefined, with respect to: the nature of the goal, the sub-goals that make up the goal, the time of completion of the sub-goals and goal, the work involved to obtain the goal, the cost involved, the time investment involved, the effort involved, risks involved, the employees involved, etc. The more predictable the situation is the more precisely the goal and the other factors mentioned above, can be delineated in the plans, and vice versa.

An alternative to the ideas discussed by McCaskey, in relation to not setting specific goals under certain conditions, is as follows. Create a set of plans, including a specific goal that can be easily modified based on feedback. That is, set flexible goals and plans, so they can be modified as required by circumstances. This method can involve defining a precise goal, but it is understood that the goal might have to be modified, based on the feedback from various components of the system, such as the response from the internal and external environment of the organization.

Another basic idea can be added here in relation to goals. Generally when the term goal is used, especially in relation to planning, it relates to an objective that an individual or the organization is trying to achieve. There are also situations or results that we want to avoid. This includes: accidents, fires, sickness, financial problems, litigation, and failures of any type, conflict, strikes, and many other undesirable situations. These undesirable situations can be thought of as negative goals. They can be defined in the same way as desirable goals. Planning can then be carried out to avoid the negative goal. Planning can also be created to deal with a negative goal in the event it manifests, such as planning for the possibility of: an accident, sickness, a strike or a fire.

When a desirable goal is defined, there are often significant possibilities of negative goals manifesting. That is, there are often risks involved with the goal or the set of actions needed to achieve the goal. It is a good idea to define these negative goals and devise a set of plans to avoid them. It is also advisable to develop contingency plans to deal with the negative goal in case it manifests. This is contingency planning.

Contingency planning can also apply to positive situations that might manifest. Examples are, a high demand for a product that was unexpected, or an unexpected development of a new invention by the engineering department of the organization. This type of planning deals with the necessary actions to deal with the desirable situation, in the event it manifests. For example, if there is a high demand for a product or a new invention, the planning must relate to obtaining the resources needed to produce and distribute the product in a timely manner. If there is a failure or delay in this action the company might lose an opportunity to make a high profit.

Now I will return to the specific subject of planning. There are three basic types of planning, which are strategic, long-range, and operational. These concepts are discussed in the following six paragraphs.

Strategic planning is a process of creating a general set of plans that outline general objectives or directions of the organization. Strategic planning is carried out by upper level management, such as the CEO and board of directors. Examples of strategic plans are the mission statement of the organization, what type of products or services should be produced, what type of organizational culture should be officially fostered, or just about any long term major planning effort, carried out by higher level management, that is general in nature and significant to the entire organization. The time frame involved with such planning is usually more than 5 years. (Montana & Charnov p 100) Some strategic plans can even last the entire life span of the organization.

Strategic planning is not really limited to organizations. individuals engage in strategic planning when they set general goals for themselves that relate to how they want to live their lives. Some examples are: the general area of employment that an individual plans to engage in; general educational goals that a person chooses which will affect employment and social opportunities; whether to stay single or find a marriage partner and raise a family, etc. In individuals, strategic planning may also develop on an unconscious level, when an individual develops an image of herself and her future. Also the development of the basic philosophy, values, morals, and personality of an individual, is also a type of strategic planning that takes place more or less on an unconscious level. The culture and subculture of our environment, and the people we interact with during the developing years influence the development of our strategic plans.

Long-range planning is more specific than strategic planning. It also has a shorter time frame associated with it, which is usually one to five years. (Montana P. & Charnov B. p 101) This type of planning is done essentially under the general guide lines that were set by the strategic planning. Long-range planning deals with: major long range financial goals; the specific products that are going to be produced over the next one to five years; major investments in machinery, land and labor; etc.

Long-range planning is also performed by people as they live their lives. When an individual decides to purchase a major appliance, furniture, a car, a boat, she is engaged in long-range planning. When an individual accepts a specific job it is also a type of long-range planning^{^[12]}. Such planning is usually controlled or influenced by the strategic plans of the individual, in relation to such factors as self-image, overall type and quantity of education, and general occupational category.

Operational planning usually has a time frame of one year or less. (Montana P. & Charnov B.) This type of planning deals with the specific activities and steps needed to run the organization, and to produce its products or services. Operational planning generally comes under the influence and basic guide lines of the long-range planning. It is essentially planning that deals with how to carry out the steps needed to achieve the goals set in the long-range planning process. For example, if the long-range plans are to make an improved product and market it at a high profit throughout the world, the operational planning in this regard will deal with the individual steps and activities needed to achieve this goal. This will include the specific steps needed in: creating the product, working out a budget, creating a world wide advertising campaign, creating a world wide distribution network, etc. Thus, it should be apparent from the example that operational planning generally, deals with the specific activities and steps that take place annually, quarterly, month to month, week to week, and day to day.

The above suggests that operational planning can be thought of as a number of different types of planning, such as the planning that deals with the month to month, week to week and day to day activities. Thus, it is possible to look at operational planning on a continuum, ranging from year to year down to the smallest relevant time interval. This also relates to the planned activities or steps, which can range from the completed goal, down to a delineation of the smallest second by second steps needed in the production process. This perspective might help with problem solving and understanding failures. A failure in operational planning can take place at any where in the continuum, such as on a month to month basis, on an hour to hour basis or on a second to second basis. For example, all the operational planning in relation to the production of a product might be perfect, accept for the second by second actions of the workers on the assembly line, which can result in serious problems.

Just as with strategic and long-term planning, operational, planning is highly relevant to the activities that people carry out in their personal lives. When we make a schedule for the month, week, or day, we are engaged in operational planning. When we try to achieve any personal goal, there are individual activities and steps that we must carry out. The planning of these steps fit the category of operational planning. If our long-range planning involves college studies our operational planning will involve choosing specific courses and going to class, and studying on a day to day basis. If our long range planning involves losing weight, the associated operational planning will involve delineating low calorie breakfasts, lunches, and suppers, and scheduling specific time periods for exercise. Thus, operational planning is a primary part of any self-improvement effort. It deals with the day to day, and the hour to hour, minute to minute, and second to second steps needed to obtain a self-improvement goal, such as completing a college course of study or losing weight. Most failures in self-improvement efforts involve failures in good operational planning or a failure to carry out the operational plan. The, failure usually takes place at the hour to hour or minute to minute, or second to second level. This becomes obvious, if you know a student that does not do her homework or an overweight individual that fails in her dieting efforts.

From the above paragraphs, it should be apparent that the planning process is complex and can involve many steps. Luthans & Hodgetts presented a simplified, five step list, which clarifies the planning process, which is as follows^{^[13]}:

1) "Become Aware of Opportunities" In general this includes, looking for any changes in the system's internal or external environment that might lead to an increase in profits or an increase in the overall functionality of the organization. This includes looking for consumer needs that can be satisfied with new products or services that can be supplied by the organization. It can also involve looking for new methods and technology that can increase profits or overall functionality of the organization.

This step can be applied to the personal life of the individual. Most people are faced with many opportunities throughout their lives. However, such opportunities may or may not be recognized. Examples include, opportunities related to higher education, job offers, opportunities to make friends, chances to form relationships with members of the opposite sex, opportunities to purchase unique products and services, etc.

2) "Establish Objectives " This involves the creation of long-term and short-term goals that relate to an opportunity, as discussed in step 1). For example, if there is an unsatisfied consumer need, the company can set a goal to create and market a product that will satisfy the need.

This idea can obviously be applied to the personal life of the individual. When we see an opportunity, such as a chance to attend a good college, we might set long-term and short-term goals that relate to the opportunity, such as plans: to apply to the college, to obtain high grades, and to graduate from the college.

3) "Choose from Alternative Courses of Action" This involves choosing the various methods and alternative ways of obtaining the goal(s). Such choices can be based on what would work best for the organization, given its strengths and weaknesses, and the circumstances of the internal and external environment of the system. For example, if the goal involves marketing a new product, the executives would have to choose the marketing strategy that would work best for the company. This might depend on the size and reputation of the company. If the organization was small with a reputation for high quality and specialized services, it might sell its product at a higher price, to a relatively small number of customers that need or value the high quality and special service. If the organization was large and it had a reputation for low prices, it might mass market its product all over the world, without any specialized services^{^[14]}.

This step is of course commonly used by everyone throughout life. That is, when an individual sets a goal, she must choose from alternative methods to achieve the goal. People generally choose the method or alternative that is best for them or easiest for them to carry out.

4) "Formulate Derivative Plans" A derivative plan delineates a series of steps or actions that convert the more general long-range plans into specific operational plans.

We all do this step in our daily lives, but it may be carried out in our minds on a conscious or unconscious level. We convert our long-range goals and plans into specific steps that constitute an operational plan. If we fail to do this or if we do it inadequately, which often happens with self-improvement goals, we will fail to obtain our objective.

5) "Budget the Plan" The budget is a written statement indicating how much money will be spent to carry out the plans needed to obtain a goal. It might be detailed to the point that it indicates how much money will be spent by each department working on the goal and it might also indicate how much money is needed to achieve each of the sub-goals of the main goal.

The individual often does not make a written budget when dealing with plans and goals. However, a budget based on rough estimations is probably created in the minds of most people. That is, we may estimate how much money it will cost to achieve a specific objective.

I will modify the list Luthans & Hodgett created, by adding six additional steps. These steps apply to organizations and individuals, which will be apparent without specific examples. The additional steps are as follows:

0) Create and look for opportunities. (I marked this with a 0 because it should be the first step on the list. However, if there is an apparent opportunity, this step can obviously be skipped.) This step implies an interesting question how do you create or find opportunities? As will be apparent from the following paragraphs, there is no absolute way of obtaining opportunities. Basically, all of the following techniques are more or less based on chance, trial and error, and creative thinking. However, if the techniques are repeated over a period of time new opportunities are likely to manifest.

Opportunities can be created by experimentation, which can be formal laboratory research or informal trial and error. Even experimental manipulations without any specific objective, can sometimes reveal valuable information, that can reveal opportunities, such as trying to determine what would happen: if you poked a jellyfish, if you mix two chemicals together, if you put an electric current through an entity, if you compliment the consumers for using your product, if you try to sell portable telephones to people in underdeveloped countries, etc. Such experimental manipulation can occasionally reveal interesting information that can lead to opportunities.

Another way of creating opportunities is to form new relationships with foreign nations, organizations, and/or individuals. The relationship that is formed usually must be positive in nature, if it is going to lead to opportunities. Forming relationships with organizations or individuals that have more money or power than you have is one way of creating opportunities. A more precise way is to form relationships with specific organizations and individuals that can supply the opportunities you are interested in. Developing relationships with people with a specific need can result in opportunities to satisfy the need, in relation to selling a product or service. Creating relationships with people that can satisfy your needs or the needs of your organization can also lead to opportunities. In general, forming relationships with organizations or individuals that have qualities, strengths, weaknesses, and needs that are different from yours, or your organization, will increase the chances of obtaining new opportunities.

Often there are opportunities that already exist, but it is necessary to find them. This can sometimes be achieved, as stated above, by forming relationships with organizations and/or individuals. Another way is to evaluate the needs and requirements of society an its various market segments. This can include various types of questionnaires and market research.

Note: The following numbers start at 6 because they are meant to follow the fifth step in the list created by Luthans & Hodgetts, which was presented above.

6) Estimate the time involved to achieve the various sub-goals and time needed to complete the entire project. The time needed to carry out plans are sometimes crucial. In some cases, it might not be possible to obtain the goal if the plans cannot be carried out within a specific period of time.

7) Consider the risks involved, in relation to obtaining the goal, and derive a set of plans to avoid the risks. It is possible to find or create many business and general life opportunities, but often there is an excessive risk involved. This is especially true with business opportunities that involve a considerable investment of money.

8) Consider the unlikely positive and negative outcomes that might manifest, and derive a set of contingency plans to deal with them. If highly functional contingency plans can be developed, it may increase the desirability of attempting to obtain goals that have a significant risk associated with them.

9) Create a simulation model to test the actions and goal that comprise the plan, and make appropriate corrections in the goal and overall plan as suggested by the simulation. The simulation can indicate ways a making better plans, and it can reduce the chances of serious errors and adverse consequences. The simulation model could be done in one or more of the following ways: in the mind, on paper, in a computer simulation, and in a small scale test project.

10) As the plans are carried out, evaluate the feedback and make needed modifications in the plans, to correct errors or to increase overall functionality. When the situation is unpredictable or unstable, many corrections in the plans might be necessary. Thus, when the circumstances are unpredictable, it is best to make a set of plans that can easily be modified.

In conclusion: It should be apparent from the above paragraphs, that the planning process is involved and complex. If plans are inadequate, there is a high probability of a failure in relation to goal attainment. There are many problems that can manifest in the planning process. The following is a list of questions that can help with planning and solving related problems:

· What type of plans are you working on, such as strategic, long-range or operational? What time interval does your plan relate to, such as many years, less than 5 years, a year, a month, a week, a day, an hour, etc.?

· What are your objectives or hopes in relation to your planning effort? Is the situation stable and predictable enough to define precise goals? Is it more feasible to create plans without specifically defined goals?

· How flexible are your plans? Are the circumstances predictable enough to use precise plans that are not flexible? Are the circumstances unpredictable enough to necessitate the use of flexible plans?

· What are all the negative goals, risks and undesirable consequences, that you want to avoid? How can you create a set of plans that will minimize the chances of the manifestation of the negative goals? What type of contingency plans do you need to deal with the negative goals, in the event they manifest?

· What are all the unexpected and positive outcomes that might manifest? What opportunities might result from the manifestation of unexpected positive outcomes? What plans would be required to avoid losing such opportunities?

Chapter 6: Organizing and Related Ideas

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Process Of Organizing

The process of organizing is a major component of the management process, and it is based on the planning process, which was discussed in the previous chapter. However, this does not define or explain the process. Thus, the question remains, what is organizing? If you ask most people this question, they might say putting things in order or arranging things in an orderly way. The definition for organizations and their management is similar, but it is not exactly the same. This can be seen in the following definitions of the word organizing taken from the indicated sources:

1) "The process of developing an orderly way for bringing together the physical and human resources that are essential to accomplish the goals of the enterprise." Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) p. 149.

2) "The managerial function of creating a structure of relationships that will enable employees to carry out management's plans and meet its objectives." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p. 767.

3) "Efficiently bringing together human and material resources to attain objectives." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p. G9.

4) "Determining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made." Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p. G-5.

The definition created by Montana & Charnov is the best on the list, because it includes both human and physical resources. Physical resources are an essential part of most organizations, and include such items as raw materials, tools, machinery and the buildings and land where the employees perform their work. The second and fourth definition leaves out all of the physical components in the organizing process, and only includes human resources. The definition created by Luthans & Hodgetts includes human and material resources. However, material resources is vague terminology. It obviously includes raw materials, but does it include tools, machinery and the buildings and land where the work is performed.

I will give my own definition of organizing. To minimize deficiencies in my definition, I will use two paragraphs to define and explain the concept, as follows:

Organizing is the process of arranging components in a specific way to obtain a goal. If we modify this definition so it specifically applies to organizations and their management, we obtain: Organizing is the process of arranging human and physical components to achieve organizational objectives. The word arranging means in this definition the physical arrangement of tools, machinery, raw materials, people, or other components as well as all of the following: obtaining appropriate managers, experts and workers; making raw materials, tools, and/or machinery available to workers; finding qualified employees, organizational members and customers; the creation of personal contacts; the development of human relationships, such as with employees, suppliers, expert consultants; creation of communication channels between individuals and/or machines; the creation of feedback channels; coordinating different components of the system, delegating authority, creating departments to carry out specific tasks, creating the overall structure and hierarchy of the organization; etc. The word goal in the definition is used in a very general sense and it means one or more of the following: a specifically defined objective, a loosely defined objective, an objective that was never precisely defined, efforts to reduce overall risk, efforts to reduce a specific risk, efforts to increase overall functionality of a system, efforts to reduce dysfunctionality of a system, etc.

The concept of organizing, as defined above, has two primary steps. The first step is to, create plans that delineate the specific nature and shape of the organizational structure you are trying to create, with your organizing efforts. This may be considered part of the planning process that was discussed in the previous chapter, or it certainly overlaps the planning process. Such plans can be created in the mind in simple situations, or on paper when the circumstances are complexed. The second step is to create the organizational structure as indicated in the plans. This involves the actual process of arranging physical and human resources that relate to the attainment of organizational or personal goals.

Another way of looking at organizing is from an abstract systems perspective. Organizing is the process of reducing entropy (disorder) in a system. This can be restated as organizing is the process of increasing order in a system. A orderly system is predictable and a disorderly system is unpredictable, especially in relation to predefined functions of the system. That is, an orderly system is likely to carry out its intended function, and a disorderly system is likely to behave in a random or chaotic way, and not carry out its intended function. In general the greater the degree of order in the system the greater the predictability and functionality, and vice versa. Thus, the systems perspective suggests that there can be a great value in organizing for the purpose of reducing disorder and increasing predictability and overall functionality of the system. That is, rearranging the components that comprise a system into a highly organized structure can have great practical value.

If we examine organizational structures, it is apparent that organizing takes place at different levels, just as the planning process does. There is organizing that relates to the permanent or semi-permanent organizational structure. This is analogous to strategic planning, and in some cases may be the result of such planning. I will call this strategic-organizing. There is organizing that relates to the creation of a specific product or service produced by the organization, which is likely to exist only during the life of the product. This is analogous to long-term planning, and can be directly related to long-term planning. Thus, I will call this long-term organizing. There is also a type of organizing that relates to the month to month, week to week and day to day goals and activities. This is analogous to operational planning, and in some cases may be the direct result of such planning. And finally, there is a type of organizing that relates to short-term activities, events and goals. I will call this short-term organizing. An example of this type of organizing is seen in special events, where the organize structure is temporary in nature, such as an organized Christmas celebration, the organizing of a temporary committee, etc.

Thus, it is apparent from the above paragraph that organizing can be thought of in terms of a continuum, ranging from organizing that is meant to be permanent to organizing that is meant to last a very short interval of time.

Organizing can be broken up into internal and external categories. Internal organizing is the organizing process that takes place within an organization, and it involves the employees, tools, machinery, and raw materials owned by the organization. Most of the organizing process that managers are involved with is internal in nature. External organizing is any organizing that an organization carries out in its external environment. This can involve developing relationships with other organizations, organizing distribution channels for the organization's products, developing relationships with customers, etc.

The organizing process can also be divided into categories based on the type of organizing. That is, there is the organizing of people and their efforts (which are usually employees), organizing of physical resources (such as tools, machinery, raw materials, and work space), and organizing of information. The manager is likely to organize employees to perform the other organizing processes mentioned.

Luthans & Hodgetts presented (pp 1922-200) a five step list, which provides additional insight into the organizing process. This list is as follows^{^[15]}:

1) "Formulate Goals and Objectives" This can be thought of as an extension of the planning process. That is, organizing is based on the goals that were set in the planning process, such as goals that relate to the production and marketing of a new product. In addition, there may be a specific set of goals that involve the organizing process, such as goals that relate to the organizing of the chain of command or how to organize the assembly line for maximum efficiency.

This step can be applied to the organizing process that individuals carry out in their daily lives. People obviously make plans and set goals. However, people sometimes make plans that are specifically related to organizing. For example, an individual might plan to rearrange his furniture into a more organized arrangement during his vacation. A student might plan to reorganize his social life after he leaves school.

2) "Develop Coordination” This involves synchronizing the various components of the system so it functions in a harmonious way to produce the goals of the organization. That is, the efforts of individuals, departments, suppliers, and every other component of the organization should be synchronized to obtain the goals. If they are not synchronized various actions will happen at inappropriate points in time. For example, when a new product is produced, the marketing department must be ready to market it. If the efforts of production and marketing are not coordinated the new product might have to be stored until the marketing department has developed an effective advertising campaign and lines of distribution.

This step sometimes applies to the individual. For example, when people organize parties, weddings, and similar events, it is important that efforts of all involved are coordinated. The food must be delivered, prepared, and arranged at a certain time. This means the efforts of the individuals involved in food preparation must be coordinated. The guests must arrive on time. In the case of the wedding, the efforts of the bride, groom, and priest or rabbi must be coordinated.

3) "Delegate Authority" This involves giving: decision making power and various tasks to others, who are usually subordinates. If the manager does not delegate enough authority to others, he will have to perform many of the tasks himself.

Some organizational structures automatically delegate a considerable amount of authority to lower level workers. This allows workers to make many important decisions themselves. Such workers might manage their own work and each other. This structure can eliminate the need for a large number of first line managers. However, this might require the hiring of workers who are highly responsible and skilled. This can be more expensive than hiring workers who are less responsible and less skilled.

There are organizational structures that are just the opposite of the above. The officials of such organizations do not delegate much authority to workers. Their employees must consult with their superiors who make the final decisions in the work environment. The employees in such organizations may have to communicate with superiors by detailed verbal explanations, filling out forms, or by written reports. This structure will generally require considerably more managers, than the example discussed in the previous paragraph. However, it might be possible to hire less skilled and less responsible individuals, than would be required with other structures. With this structure the organization might save money by utilizing workers with low skill and reliability, but more money would probably be required to hire the additional managers needed to supervisors the employees.

Question, do individuals in their personal lives delegate authority? The answer is yes. People generally organize a set of professionals, such as physicians, surgeons, dentists, lawyers, repair personnel to make some limited decisions and perform certain procedures. Usually, before such authority is delegated to the professional, the individual is informed of the procedure, and a consent form is signed. It might be different from the process that takes place in organizations, but it is still a process of delegating authority to another individual. A more extreme example of delegating occurs when an individual becomes severely physically or mentally disabled. The entire responsibility for the well-being of the individual might be delegated to others.

4) "Shape the Structure" There are various ways that an organization can be structured or shaped. The best structure will generally depend on the circumstances. Some of the primary components that can be involved in the shape of an organizational structure, include: the relative degree of flexibility of the organization, the number of managerial levels, the span of control. I will briefly discuss these components as follows.

Flexibility: Some organizations are organized in a way that allows them to deal rapidly with changing circumstances. Flexibility, allows them to take advantage of opportunities and to adjust to adverse changes in their circumstances. There are of course organizations that are just the opposite, rigid. In addition, there are many organizations that are in-between the two extremes.

The number of managerial levels: The simplest organization can have one manager supervising a few workers, such as in a small privately owned business. Larger organizations usually require a hierarchy of managerial control, which might involve a CEO supervising several top managers, who supervises middle level managers, who supervise first line managers, who supervise the workers. In very large organizations there can be many more levels of managers than expressed in the above example. In general, an organization should try to function with the least number of levels possible, because it is more efficient. The efficiency relates to the financial cost of hiring managers. However, there are other factors that relate to efficiency. It might be more difficult for people to communicate with the various segments of the organization, when there are many managerial levels.

5) "Departmentalize" The organizing process often involves the creation of departments, primarily in large organizations. Departments are created to achieve sub-goals that relate to main goals of the organization. For example, a large organization might create an engineering department to design new products; a production department to manufacture the product; a marketing department to advertise, distribute, and sell the product. This departmental division is obviously based on function. Another example, is a departmental division based on geography. That is, a large organization can have different departments that serve the needs of specific geographical locations, such as the East Coast division, the Midwest division, the West Coast division and the international export division. Another division is by process, such as a furniture company that, has a furniture construction department, a sanding department, and a varnishing department. Another departmental division can be based on the type of customer, such as separate departments for individual consumers, corporate accounts, and government accounts.

In the smaller organizations, such as a small to medium size privately owned business, there are generally no departments. In these businesses, individuals might serve the function of a department. That is, there might be a division of labor based on any of the above examples, such as a division based on function, process, type of customer, etc.

Most of the ideas expressed in the above paragraphs apply to individuals as well as organizations. This is seen when the ideas of strategic, long-term, operational, and short-term organizing are applied to the individual, as follows.

Individuals engage in strategic organizing, just as organizations do, when they form relationships that are meant to be permanent or semi-permanent, such as marriage, and close personal friendships. If an individual arranges the structure of his house in a permanent way, such as by means of construction, he is engaged in a type of strategic organizing, which is based on the way the term was defined above. Long-term organizing is seen when an individual arranges his furniture, and forms relationships that are likely to last only a couple of years, such as college friendships. The individual engages in operational organizing when he organizes the smaller items in his house, such as small electronic devices, kitchen utensils, books, important papers, etc. When an individual arranges a party, he is engaged in a type of short-term organizing. When the individual cleans his house and rearranges it, he is engaged in short-term organizing.

In relation to the individual, the organizing process can be divided into three general types, which are mental organizing, social organizing and physical organizing. These categories can also be highly relevant to people who want to manage others in an organizational structure. I will discuss each of these categories in the following nine paragraphs.

Mental organizing is a process that might not take place on a totally conscious level. It involves organizing thoughts, emotions, experiences, and other information in such a way as to increase the mental health and overall functionality of the individual. A general example of mental organizing is when an individual incorporates recently learned material with experiences and ideas learned in the past. Another general example is when an individual adjusts to a new life situation, which will most likely involve the organizing process. New situations, especially if they are disruptive or unexpected in nature, such as death of a relative, divorce, suddenly obtaining a huge some of money, becoming extremely successful in a short period of time, can cause mental disorganization. This will necessitate reorganization to maintain prior levels of mental health and overall functioning. The organizing or reorganizing process can involve assessment of the new situation, the reassessment of past experiences, the emotional acceptance of the new situation, the learning of new material and skills needed in the new situation, and then organizing all of the above in a functional way.

The mental organizing process might facilitate learning and the retention of information. That is, when individuals organize material they learned, they are probably more likely to develop a deep understanding of the material, and they are probably more likely to retain what they learned. This is especially the case, if they organize the new material with their own ideas and with information they previously gained through the learning process.

The mental organizing process, in the individual, can take place when people discuss their thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and experiences with others. The writing process can also result in mental organizing, in relation to the material that is being written.

The above suggests the opposite question. What factors might interfere with the mental organizing, or reorganizing, processes? Probably all of the following: high levels of prolonged anxiety; lack of sleep; over work; poor nutrition, a hostile boss, manager, supervisor, instructor, parent; any type of unfriendly, unfair, or cruel treatment; many life disrupting experiences; a serious accident; any type of illness; etc.

The mental organizing process applies to organizations, because they are primarily composed of people. When an individual first enters an organization there may be a readjustment process required, which involves adjusting to the organizational culture, subculture, and learning the new skills required by the job. This requires mental organization and/or reorganization.

Managers can use the ideas expressed above and the general principle of the mental organizing process, in a practical way. They can understand that people must go through a mental organizing process, especially when they first become involved with the organization. The manager can do everything possible to avoid interfering with the mental organizing process. They can also do everything possible to facilitate the process.

Social organizing is the process, carried out by the individual, when he forms various types of relationships, at various levels of closeness, with people. This process includes: getting to know people, rejecting some people, keeping certain individuals at specific social distances, forming a closer relationship with certain individuals at a certain point in the development of the relationship, distancing the self from certain individuals at a certain point in the relationship, scheduling intervals of time to work or socialize with certain individuals, etc. This process is important for the individual, because the nature, quality and extent of his social organizing may affect his overall success. The process of social organizing is also relevant to the organization, because when people become involved with organizations they inadvertently or intentionally organize their own social network, within the organization.

Physical organizing is the process that individuals carry out when they arranging physical entities in their environment. This includes arranging: furniture, small portable items, papers, kitchen utensils, tools, etc. The ability for an individual to organize such items can have relevance to the manager. That is, employees might have different abilities or skill levels in relation to physical organizing, which might affect certain types of work performance.

As is apparent from the above paragraphs, the organizing processes that the individual carries out are extremely important. The level of organization in a person's life and the ability he has to organize, in relation to mental, social and physical organizing, is likely to affect his overall life chances, in all areas, including: education, occupation, finances, physical and mental health.

The different types of organizing can probably affect each other to some extent. For example, a mentally disorganized individual, is likely to behave in a way that will cause social disorganization. Social disorganization is also likely to cause mental disorganization. This suggests that a vicious cycle can develop that might maintain a high level of disorder in the life of some individuals. And just the opposite is probably true with some people. That is, there are individuals who are highly mentally organized, which can lead to a socially and physically organize life, which can facilitate a high level of mental organization.

In conclusion: It should be apparent from the above paragraphs, that the organizing process is involved and complex. If organizing is inadequate, there is a high probability of a failure in relation to goal attainment. There are many problems that can manifest in the organizing process. The following is a list of questions that can help with organizing and solving related problems:

· What are your plans and goals? How do you have to organize to carry out your plans and obtain your goal(s)?

· Do you have a set of plans that specifically relate to the organizing process? How do you plan to organize the system? What are your specific goals in relation to your organizing efforts?

· Is there a high level of entropy (disorder) in the system you are trying to organize? How can you reduce the entropy in the system? How can you increase the overall level of order and functionality in the system? What components would you have to obtain or rearrange to achieve a high level of functionality in the system?

· Is your organizing effort related to strategic plans? Is your organizing effort related to long-term plans? Is your organizing effort related to operational plans? Is your organizing effort related to one or more of the above? Are you involved in short-term organizing?

· Are you involved in an internal or an external organizing effort? Does your organizing effort involve internal and external organizing?

· Are you organizing people, physical resources, or information? Are you organizing all of the above?

· Are your organizing efforts related to coordination of human and/or physical resources? If so, how can you schedule the related tasks, which must perform, in the most efficient way?

· Do you plan to delegate authority, in your organizing efforts? If you delegate more authority can you increase your work efficiency? If you delegate authority to subordinates will any significant problems result?

· How do you expect to shape or structure your organization? How flexible, will your structure be? How many levels of management will there be in your structure? Is it possible to reduce the number of levels in your organizational structure, without the loss of productivity?

· Are you going to create departments with your organizing efforts? What functions will each department perform?

· Are your organizing efforts related to an organization? Are your organizing efforts related to your personal life? If it is related to your personal life are you engaged in mental organizing, social organizing or physical organizing?

· How can you increase the level of your mental organization? How can you increase the level of mental organization of the people that work with you? How can you reduce stress and disruptions, which cause mental disorganization, in your life and in the lives of the people that work with you?

· Do you have any social organizing goals? Are these goals related to friendship or the work environment? What is the primary purpose of your social organizing efforts?

· Do you have any physical organizing goals? How do you expect to carry out these goals?

· What organizing efforts would be required to increase the overall functionality and success in your life?

Chapter 7: Leading and Related Ideas

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Leading

What is leading? If you ask most people this question, they might say leading is the process of guiding people in a controlled way toward an objective. The definition for organizations and their management is essentially similar, but it is not exactly the same. This becomes apparent from the following definitions of the word leading, which were taken from the indicated sources:

1) "The managerial function of communicating with and motivating others to perform the tasks necessary to achieve the organization's objectives." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 765.

2) "Includes motivating subordinates, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels, and resolving conflicts." Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p G-4.

3) "Induce (another or others) to accept the validity of something (as a belief, course of action, or point of view)" Franklin Language Master electronic dictionary LM 5000. This definition is apparently not from a book on management or organizational behavior, but it provides some insight.

The first definition is the best because it clearly defines the process of leading. The second definition contains the phrase "selecting the most effective communication channels" which defines an ideal form of leadership. That is, if the most effective communication channels are not selected, and the other components mentioned are present, the process is still leading. Perhaps this is not good leading, but that is besides the point.

We might be able to gain further insight into the process of leading, if we examine the related concept of leadership. Most people would probably define leadership as the ability to lead others. The following definitions, taken from the indicated sources, reveal the organizational and managerial perspective of leadership.

1) "Leadership is the process by which one individual influences others to accomplish desired goals." Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) p 216.

2) "Influencing others to act toward the attainment of a goal." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 765.

3) "The process of influencing people to direct their efforts toward the achievement of particular objectives." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p G7.

4) "The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals." Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p G-4.

5) "Leadership is social influence in an organizational setting, the effects of which are relevant to, or have an impact upon, the achievement of organizational goals." Saal, Frank E. & Knight, Patrick A. (1995) Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice (2nd ed.) p 320.

The first three definitions define the concept adequately. The fourth definition inaccurately implies that the leadership process is limited to a group. This is not accurate because leadership can involve one leader and one follower. The fifth definition is also quite good, but it is a general organizational psychological definition, and it is not specifically focused on the management process. Thus, leadership can be defined from many different theoretical and philosophical perspectives. Bass stated, "There are almost as many different definitions of leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept." (Saal, & Knight p 319.)

I will give my own definitions of leading and leadership. To minimize deficiencies in my definitions, I will use two paragraphs to define and explain the concepts, as follows:

Leading is the process of guiding the actions of one or more individuals to obtain a goal. Leadership is the ability to perform the process of leading, as defined above. The word guiding means in this definition one or more of the following: influencing, controlling, or limiting an aspect of behavior. The word actions in this definition means behavior that is in some way relevant to obtaining the goal. The word goal in the definition is used in a very general sense and it means one or more of the following: a specifically defined objective, a loosely defined objective, an objective that was never precisely defined, efforts to reduce overall risk, efforts to reduce a specific risk, efforts to increase overall functionality of a system, efforts to reduce dysfunctionality of a system, etc.

The concept of leading as defined above, involves observing others, motivating others, and communicating with others, in relation to obtaining a goal. This can be represented in a series of seven steps. Incidentally, these steps also generally apply to the process of influencing friends, family, volunteers or anyone else to carry out your desires. The steps are as follows:

1) A plan, a goal, or set of tasks are delineated, which can be on paper or in the mind of the manager^{^[16]}.

2) A set of instructions are created that relates to the above (step 1). This can be done in a precise way on paper, or in a general way, on a conscious or unconscious level, in the mind of the manager.

3) The employees who are to carry out the instructions are selected, based on availability, relevant abilities and motivational factors. This can be a tentative list created in the mind of the manager, or an actual selection and evaluation of the employees^{^[17]}.

4) The manager considers how she can increase the motivation of the individuals who are to carry out the required Instructions.

Note, the manager's power to motivate the workers, can be represented by the Bertram Raven model, which involves: reward power, coercive power, expert power, referent power, information power, and power based on legitimate authority. Reward power means giving rewards to the employee for proper work performance, such as money, extra bonuses, promotions, praise, promises for compensation in the future, etc. Coercive power is just the opposite of the above. It involves punishment and/or threats of punishment, if the worker does not do the work in the manner required by the manager. This punishment can include: firing the employee, harsh criticism, demotion, etc. Expert power is the ability to influence others based on expert knowledge. That is, the manager with expertise might be able to influence the workers simply because she knows more than they do; as a result they follow her orders. Referent power is the ability to influence others based on positive personal traits, which result in admiration or liking. This might be based on a social and/or emotional desire to be identified with or obtain such traits. However, referent power might work because people want to be liked by an individual or manager with certain positive traits. They might simply obey the manager with positive traits simply because they like her. That is, people want to please individuals they like. Information power is a process of influencing others with specific information. For example, a manager might be able to persuade her subordinates to obey the rules if she provides relevant information, such as there are hidden surveillance cameras on the factory floor. Power based on legitimate authority involves following orders simply because the individual giving the orders is in a formal position of authority. Thus, employees might obey their manager simply because she is in charge, and was given the formal position and authority of manager by the organization.

5) The instructions are prepared for the process of communication, in such a way as to be understood and accepted by the employees who will carry out the instructions. In this process the instructions are broken up into tasks that can be understood and successfully performed by the employees.

6) The instructions are communicated to the employees. This can be done orally, in writing and/or through another person. In modern times, recordings or video can also be used. Ideally, at least two of the above should be used, especially if the instructions are complicated.

7) The manager observes the performance of the employees and makes appropriate corrections. The corrections might include changes and/or repetitions of one or more of the above steps.

The above paragraphs suggest an interesting question. Are managers leaders? The answer to this question is partly based on the perspective and definition of the word leader. It also depends on the manager and her specific job. Most managers engage in the leading process to at least a minimal extent. In fact most human beings engage in the process of leading to at least a minimal degree at one time or another during their personal or professional lives. Thus, a manager is not necessarily a leader, but she is a person that generally provides at least some leadership. Some managers are truly leaders and they may change the course of the entire organization. They may spend a considerable amount of their time influencing others in a manner of a leader.

Thus, since most managers perform at least some leadership functions, and some managers are truly leaders, it is worthwhile to discuss leadership. This is done in the following paragraphs.

Are some people born with genetic predispositions to be leaders? The genetic theory of leadership and its variations is an old theoretical perspective. However, most modern sources disagree with this theory. (Montana & Charnov p 221.) The evidence suggests that leadership involves a set of learned skills that are specific to the leadership situation^{^[18]}. In general, leaders tend to have the following acquired (learned) abilities, skills and traits.^{^[19]}

1) The leader should have the specific expertise and knowledge required for the specific leadership situation. For example, an individual leading a team of electrical engineers in the production of a new product, should have expertise in electrical engineering.

2) Leaders usually have the necessary: social status, prestige and/or power to gain the respect and control of their followers.

3) The leader should have the necessary cultural knowledge and experience to deal with the individuals she is leading. That is, the leader should be knowledgeable with the customs, language, style, etc., of the people she is leading. It is also often important to be knowledgeable of the subculture of the individuals being led. Ideally the leader should be a member of the culture and subculture of the people she is leading. However, in the work environment, where people get paid to follow orders, this might be much less important than in other types of leadership.

4) The leader should have a good set of skills (interpersonal skills) in relation to dealing with other people. This includes the ability to control the self as well as the ability to control others. This also includes the capability to project confidence, enthusiasm, friendliness, etc.

5) Leaders are often high self-monitors and they adjust their behavior to the specific situation. That is, they monitor their own social behavior, such as style of communication, body language, and adjust it to deal with the individuals and circumstances they are faced with at a specific point in time.

6) Leaders usually have good communication skills, in relation to the people they are leading. This includes an ability to explain instructions and other information to followers. The leader should know how to communicate verbally and nonverbally to the followers. It also includes the capability to understand the verbal and nonverbal communication style of the people being led.

The above list is based on a general assessment of leaders from an anthropological, sociological and social psychological perspective. Thus, the list does not specifically deal with managers as leaders, nor does it deal with what organizations look for in a managerial leader. Hellriegel & Slocum present two lists (pp 25-27 & pp 446-448) that are specifically aimed at what the modern organization wants in a managerial leader. Their list is more specific in relation to leadership in modern organizations, but it does not contradict the general list presented above. The lists created by Hellriegel & Slocum are combined into one list and are presented below^{^[20]}:

1) "empowerment When a leader shares influence and control with followers." This is a process of sharing power with employees, such as the power to control their work, the power to take responsibility, the power to manage some of their own work, the power to perform some leadership functions, etc.

2) "intuition The ability to scan a situation, anticipate changes, take risks, and build trust." This is an intuitive ability to evaluate a set of circumstances and respond in the most functional way. It probably is based on specific knowledge, experience and thinking skills that allow the leader to make highly functional decisions when dealing with changing circumstances.

3) "self-understanding The ability to recognize a person's own strengths and weaknesses." It is important to know your strengths, because that is what you will offer the organization. Knowing your strengths is also a primary component of self-confidence. It is also important to know your weaknesses, because it makes it easier to compensate for the deficiencies, such as by delegating tasks that you cannot do well to subordinates.

4) "vision The ability to imagine different and better conditions and ways to achieve them." This is the ability and willingness to visualize improvements in organizational functioning and create realistic plans and goals that relate to such improvements.

5) "value congruence The ability to understand the organization's guiding principles and employees values and reconcile the two." This idea is based on the reality that employees and the organization are likely to have at least some values that are different. The skilled leader can deal successfully with these differences, such as by structuring organizational tasks, sub-goals and rewards in such a way that it does not contradict the employee=s values. An example can be an employee that has religious values, and wants to take a vacation on a religious holiday. Such values can easily be dealt with by allowing the employee to have the vacation, providing she works extra hours on other days of the year.

6) "technical skills The ability to apply specific methods, procedures, and techniques in a specialized field." This was already mentioned in the previous list, and it is very important for the modern manager who is in a leadership position.

7) "interpersonal skills The ability to lead, motivate, manage conflict, and work with others." This was also mentioned in the previous list, and it is necessary for all types of leadership.

8) "conceptual skills The ability to view a problem, an issue, or the organization as a whole and its interrelated parts." This is important for all types of problem solving. It is especially important to see the organization as a whole system with interrelated parts, because this can avoid undesirable and unanticipated outcomes of problem solving.

9) "communication skills The abilities to send and receive information, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes." This was already mentioned in the previous list, and it is essential for all types of leadership.

10) "critical thinking The careful consideration of the implications of all elements of a problem." This is also important for all types of problem solving.

It should be apparent from the above paragraphs, that a person that is a skilled leader in one situation might be totally inadequate for the leadership position in another situation. For example, a leader who has an excellent technical and cultural background to lead a team of electrical engineers in the United States will most likely not have the needed skills and cultural experiences to lead a team of fashion designers in Japan. This suggests the question: what do you do if you are lacking the necessary traits, knowledge or skills for the leadership task that you are faced with? The answer is to appoint one or more co-leaders, who have the necessary qualifications to help you. Just by accepting this idea, appointing co-leaders who have appropriate knowledge, skills and temperament, you can greatly increase your leadership potential, because you are no longer limited by your own capabilities.

In general, leaders can be divided into two basic categories, which are informal and formal. Informal leaders are individuals who are unofficially treated as leaders by members of a group. Informal leaders are found in friendship groups, informal discussion groups, and in the work environment. Formal leaders are individuals who are officially designated as leaders, such as managers, elected officials, individuals of high military rank, etc. These two categories of leaders are discussed in the following paragraphs.

The informal leader in the work environment, generally is an employee without any formal power. She might be an ordinary worker on the assembly line, but other workers are influenced by her verbalizations and actions. This has relevance to the work environment, because informal leaders can influence workers in both positive and negative ways, from the perspective of official management. These leaders might be primary elements in the formation of unofficial organizational subcultures, which can sometimes interfere with productivity. This can be seen in the chapter on the Hawthorne Studies, which is presented later in this book.

A possible useful strategy to deal with informal leaders in the work environment, can involve identifying the informal leaders, and than educate and persuade them to assist in working toward official organizational goals. Making some of these individual’s official leaders, such as foreman or supervisors may also be of value. Informal leaders that are truly disruptive or hostile to the organization can be placed in situations where they have no power to influence other workers. This can involve a job that involves working with employees with more official or unofficial power, or a job that is isolated from other workers. Of course, another alternative is to fire the disruptive informal leader.

Formal leaders, managers, in the work environment are of course individuals that have official power to lead, and they do not lead with the same techniques or in the same way. The difference in leadership style found amongst managers is based on variations in their intellectual and psychological makeup. However, as will become apparent from the following paragraphs the leadership strategies that are used by a specific manager might be more often based on her personal psychological tendencies, such as a desire to be liked and accepted, or personally held prejudicial beliefs about workers.

One theoretical perspective of leadership is the managerial grid model created by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton. This model consists essentially of a two dimensional graph, similar to the X Y graphs we used in math class. With the managerial grid model the X-axis is the managers concern for production. The Y-axis is the managers concern for people, which is a concern for the emotional and personal well-being of employees. Thus, a manager can be rated on these coordinates (production=X, people=Y). The scale for both the X axis and Y axis is from 0 to 9. The model identifies five stereotyped leadership styles, with the following coordinates: (1,1), (1,9) (9,1), (5,5) and (9,9). These leadership styles are discussed in the following five paragraphs.

The coordinates (1,1) obviously represent a leader that has little concern for people or production. This type of leadership style is called the impoverished style. According to the model, a manager that accepts this style is probably just concerned about keeping her job. She does not want to make waves, and she passes orders down from upper management to employees.

The coordinates (1,9) represent a low concern for production and a high concern for people. This type of leadership is called the country club style. Manages who choose this style focus on creating a friendly atmosphere, with a concern for the well-being of the employees. This is likely to be done at the expense of production, unless the employees are highly self-disciplined and do their jobs without managerial discipline. The manager that uses the country club style of leadership probably has a strong emotional need to be accepted and liked by others.

The coordinates (9,1) represent the produce or perish style of leadership. As can be seen from the coordinates, this type of leadership involves a high concern for production, and a low concern for people. Managers that use this style of leadership are likely to use disciplinary measures and their authority to motivate employees. They probably do not like the workers, and probably believe that the employees they are managing can easily be replaced.

The coordinates (5,5) represent the middle-of-the-road style. This type of leadership involves a moderate concern for people and production, which is apparent from the coordinates. Manages, that use this style of leadership try to create a reasonable compromise between the needs of employees and the requirements of the organization.

The coordinates (9,9) represent the team style. As suggested by the coordinates, this leadership style involves a high concern for both production and people. The leader that uses this style tries to create a team like commitment in the employees. She might try to make them feel that the organization, and its goals, and its employees are one and the same.

The above suggest an interesting question: Are not the needs of employees and the needs of the organization two separate factors that cannot both be satisfied to a maximum level? This is probably true with some employees, jobs and organizations. There are situations where the needs of the employees contradict the needs of the organization, and vice versa. The most extreme case is seen in military organizations during war. This can involve placing military personnel in situations where they are likely to get wounded or killed. Less extreme examples can be found in certain civilian jobs that are extremely unpleasant, dull and perhaps even dangerous. In such cases, the employees might prefer to do as little work as possible, and the manager may try to make than do as much work as she can obtain from them.

As is probably apparent from the preceding discussions, the style of leadership adopted by leaders is often based on their attitudes and beliefs in relation to other people. Especially important is their attitude toward themselves and the employees they supervise. Douglas McGregor formulated a basic concept that relates to this idea, which he called theory X and theory Y, which is discussed below.

A manager that believes in theory X has a negative attitude toward the employees she supervises. Such a manager believes that most employees tend to dislike work, are lazy, have little ambition, will avoid doing their job if they can get away with it, are intellectually limited, and generally lack creative potential. Thus, the manager that believes in theory X, concludes that employees must be carefully supervised and threatened with punishment to motivate them to do their jobs. Managers with this belief generally will not consult with the employees they supervise; they will just give orders. Managers that believe in theory Y, think in a way that is essentially the opposite of the above. They believe that employees basically like work, can learn to accept and like responsibility, are relatively intelligent, are potentially creative, are capable of self-discipline, and can manage their own work. Thus, managers that believe in theory Y conclude that employees need to be treated well; they need relatively little supervision, and do not need much guidance. These managers are likely to consult with the employees, before making final decisions.

Professor William G. Ouchi delineated a theory Z, which is essentially based on the way Japanese managers tend to treat employees. This is based on a cultural perspective of the Japanese, which places a high value on the group. That is, when managers believe in theory Z, they consider the capabilities, judgment, and power of groups to be of utmost importance and utility. They believe that generally a group has more knowledge, experience, and creativity than an individual manager. The manager that believes in theory Z tries to create an environment of openness, trust, and group involvement in organizational affairs. The employees are treated as valuable members of the organization and group and are generally not fired. Thus, managers that believe in theory Z will consult the group to deal with managerial problems. They often have regular meetings with a group of workers to improve production quality and cut costs. This is called a quality control circle. The managers who accept theory Z are also concerned with the quality of the work environment and its impact on the employees.

In general, theory Z is the most humanistic, followed by theory Y, with theory X being the least humanistic. We can perhaps gain further insight, if we attempt to place the leadership styles that relate to theories X, Y and Z on the managerial grid model, which was discussed above. If we do this, we obtain the following: theory X leadership style is approximately (9,1) produce or perish, theory Y is approximately (1,9) the country club style or perhaps a little more concentration on production than the country club style, such as suggested by the coordinates (5,9). The group oriented style of theory Z is approximately (9,9), which is the team style.

The above does not necessarily indicate which is the more accurate theory or what is the best management style. The answer is it depends on the, work-related task, the employees, the cultural beliefs held by the employees, the specific nature of the organization, the internal and external environments, and many other factors. There are situations where workers fit the stereotype that is outlined in theory X, they dislike their jobs, they are truly lazy, not intelligent, not self-disciplined, and thus need intensive and strict supervision and guidance. This can be especially true if the employees are working in a situation that is critical, requiring a constant work pace, and high quality, without errors. In situations where the workers are truly intelligent, self-disciplined, basically like their work, and have work ethics that are consistent with organizational goals, the philosophy suggested by theory Y may be the best approach. If you have such individuals, (truly intelligent, self-disciplined, etc.) who also work well in groups, theory Z might suggest the best managerial strategies.

Most of the ideas mentioned in the above paragraphs, including theories X, Y, and Z apply to individuals in their personal lives. Some individuals believe in a type of theory X. That is, they have a negative attitude toward people, which is likely to be reflected in the way they interact with others, especially with family, friends, coworkers, and employers. There are individuals that have attitudes that are positive and similar to theory Y. Such individuals are likely to have confidence in the trustworthiness and abilities of others. They are likely to treat people, with respect, understanding and sympathy. And there are people that have the positive attitudes and are group oriented and may have behaviors that suggest the philosophy of theory Z.

Perhaps the most well adjusted and effective individual or manager is a person that does not have any fixed set of beliefs, such as theories X, Y, or Z, limiting her behavior. Such an individual will adjust to the external realities that she is faced with at a specific point in time. This involves using the most appropriate theories, information, and actions to deal with the current set of circumstances that you are faced with. This approach is likely to be the most effective approach in business and in your personal life.

The entire process of leading also applies to the individual as well as managers. That is, to some extent most of us engage in some type of leading in our personal lives. We may have led our friends in social activities at one point in time. People that are raising children are constantly engaged in the process of leading. However, most of us engage in a type of leadership that is even more subtle than the above. When we exercise control over our lives, we often have to communicate and motivate others in specific ways, which is often equivalent to the process of leading, as outlined in the list of seven steps that were presented in the beginning of this chapter. This is especially apparent when we have goals that involve other people. When we are dealing with such goals, our leadership effort might be very similar to the leadership provided by a manager in an organization.

In conclusion: It should be apparent from the above paragraphs, that the process of leading is involved and complex. If the leading process or leadership is inadequate, there is a high probability of a failure in relation to goal attainment. There are many problems that can manifest as a result of such inadequacies. The following is a list of questions that can help with problems of leading and leadership:

Note, the following seven questions are numbered because they represent a series of connected ideas in relation to the leadership process.

1) Do you have a plan, a goal, or set of tasks that relate to your intended leadership efforts?

2) Did you change your plan, goal or set of tasks into instructions that can be understood by the employees you expect to lead?^{^[21]}

3) Did you select the employees or individuals that are to carry out your instructions? Are the individuals you selected qualified and motivated to carry out your instructions?

4) How can you motivate the employees or individuals you selected to carry out your instructions? What types of power do you personally have to increase the motivation of the employees or individuals who are to carry out your instructions? Do you have reward power, such as the ability to pay money? Can you reward the individuals involved with praise? Do you have any legitimate coercive power over the people that will be following your instructions? Can you motivate the employees or individuals with expert power? Can you motivate with referent power? Will the employees or individuals help you because they like you? Can you motivate by providing information? Can you motivate others because you are in a position of authority?

5) Did you prepare the instructions for the employees or individuals who are to carry out your orders? Did you put the instructions in a form that can be understood by the people who are to carry out your orders? Did you divide the instructions into sections that are relevant for each worker or team?

6) Are you ready to communicate your instructions to the employees?

7) Did you observe how the employees were carrying out your instructions? Do the employees need any guidance? Are any corrections necessary? What changes can you make to improve the performance of the employees? Are any changes or corrections necessary in your instructions or style of leadership?

Note, the following six questions are numbered because they represent a series of connected ideas in relation to the skills that are usually needed by leaders.

1) Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills for your leadership task? If not, how can you compensate for this deficiency? Can you obtain a co-leader who has the necessary knowledge and skills to help you with your leadership task.

2) Do you have the necessary social status, prestige and/or power to gain the respect and control of the people you are trying to lead? If not, how can you compensate for this deficiency? Can you obtain a co-leader, who has the necessary social status, prestige and/or power, to help you?

3) Do you have the necessary cultural background to perform the leadership task you are about to attempt? If not, can you obtain a co-leader who has the necessary cultural background? Is there any other way you can compensate for a relative cultural deficiency in relation to your leadership task?

4) Do you have adequate interpersonal skills for the leadership task you are about to attempt? If not, is there any way you can compensate for this deficiency, such as by appointing a co-leader who has the necessary interpersonal skills?

5) Do you have the ability and inclination to adjust your behavior to the leadership task you are about to attempt? If not, how can you compensate for this deficiency? Can you appoint a co-leader who can help you compensate for this deficiency?

6) Do you have the best communications skills for the leadership task you are about to perform? If not, can you compensate for this deficiency in any way, such as by appointing a co-leader with good communication skills to help you?

· Who are the informal leaders in the organization? Are these informal leaders interfering with the proper functioning of the organization? Are the informal leaders interfering with your leadership? How can you deal with problems that are cause by informal leaders?

· Are you having any difficulty with a formal leader in your organization, such as a manager, supervisor or an instructor? If so, how can you deal with this problem?

· Do you have a negative attitude that is similar to theory X, in relation to the people you are leading? Is your negative attitude justified? Can you temporarily change your attitude to a positive one, to see if it works better?

· Do you have a positive attitude that is similar to theory Y, in relation to the people you are trying to lead? Is this attitude justified?

· Do you have a positive attitude about groups, that is similar to theory Z. Is this attitude justified in relation to the groups you or working with? Are there any elements in theory Z that can help you achieve personal or organizational goals?

· Do you have any beliefs or ways of thinking or acting that limit your behavior in undesirable ways? If so, what are these beliefs, ways of thinking or acting? How can you circumvent these dysfunctional elements in your psyche?

Chapter 8: Controlling, and Related Ideas

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What Is Controlling?

What is controlling? If you ask most people this question, in relation to one person controlling others, they might say it is manipulative behavior. When this concept is applied to organizations, it is a functional requirement of the management process. This can be seen in the following definitions of the word controlling taken from the indicated sources:

1) "The managerial function of evaluating employee effort and taking corrective action to better ensure the accomplishment of the organization's goals." Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) p 447.

2) "The process by which a person, group, or organization consciously monitors performance and takes corrective action" Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 760.

3) "Comparing actual results against expected performance within a predetermined time." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p G3.

4) "Monitoring activities to ensure they are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations." Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p G-1.

All of the above are moderately good descriptions of the controlling process, except for the third definition. Luthans & Hodgetts (the third definition) defined the term without including the correction process.

I will give my own definition of controlling. To minimize deficiencies in my definition, I will use two paragraphs to define and explain the concept, as follows:

Controlling is the process of monitoring the performance of employees or a system and taking corrective action when the performance deviates from a goal or set of standards. The word goal in the definition is used in a very general sense and it means one or more of the following: a specifically defined objective, a loosely defined objective, an objective that was never precisely defined, efforts to reduce overall risk, efforts to reduce a specific risk, efforts to increase overall functionality of a system, efforts to reduce dysfunctionality of a system, etc. The words set of standards means any: criteria, mathematical data, benchmark data, rules, norms or customs that are considered relevant to the controlling process. The word employees means in this definition anyone that is being controlled in the management process. The words system means the entire organization or any component that relates to the organization, such as a department, team, group, individual, supplier, distributor, the internal or external environment, the consumers, or any subsystem.

The controlling process is essentially the feedback and correction process. That is, a system or subsystem is monitored and corrections are made based on information obtained from the feedback, in such a way as to reach a target goal or to maintain or achieve a set of standards.

The controlling process is also found in daily life outside of the organizational setting. That is, when people interact they consciously or unconsciously are involved in the controlling process as described in the above paragraphs. It is insightful to realize that we all give off controlling signals, which could be in a form of verbalizations or nonverbal cues, such as direct statements, requests, body movements, frowns, smiles, angry expressions, etc. We in effect, manage the behavior of the people we interact with to at least some minimal degree, and vice versa. If someone deviates from the generally accepted set of standards he is likely to get feedback from others that will indicate a correction is required. If someone deviates from the wishes of an individual that he is dealing with, he will also get feedback suggesting a deviation from their desires. Of course, such feedback might be ignored. That is, in daily life, the individual is not always obligated to follow the controlling efforts of others.

The controlling process can be better understood if it is broken up into a series of steps, and these steps generally will apply to both the management process and daily life activities. There are a number of ways that this can be done. Montana & Charnov delineated a four step controlling process (p 237) as follows^{^[22]}:

1) "setting performance standards" Management must decide what to measure and how to measure it in relation to performance. This can involve setting goals and subgoals that relate to quality and quantity of performance. It can also involve the use of any criteria for a standard of comparison, such as mathematical data or benchmark data.

2) "measuring the performance" Management must decide, when and how the performance related measurements or evaluations are to be carried out. In the simplest case, this can be done by a manager observing the employees and making judgments on his performance. In more complex situations, it can involve quantitative measurements of production rate, profits, increase in sales, automatic computer assessment of work output, etc.

3) "evaluating the performance" The performance is evaluated by comparing the performance standards set in step one, with the measured, or observed, performance of an entity that are involved in the controlling process. (Note, the word entity means here one of the following: an employee(s) a group, a department, the entire organization, or any relevant system or subsystem.)

4) "making effective use of feedback and taking corrective actions when necessary, when there has been a failure to meet the performance standards." This involves studying the feedback related information and making corrections to maintain or reach the performance standards.

Another, way of presenting the controlling process is as follows:

1) A goal, or set of standards are delineated for the controlling process. This can include setting mathematical standards that can be measured. For example, if a goal was already set in the planning process to make a new product and market it throughout the United States, than a set of standards or related subgoals may be set in the controlling process. This can involve: the minimum acceptable production rate per employee; quality standards; the maximum allowable defect rate; the maximum cost for each item produced; sales goals; a goal to remain within the budgetary guidelines for production, distribution, and advertising. In addition, standards of behavior might be set, such as rules that relate to the reduction of accidents, or proper behavioral guidelines that are required by law or necessitated by generally accepted ethical standards.

This step, 1), can happen on an unconscious level, in situations that are simpler than the above, such as in simple management activities or in daily life interactions. When the situation is relatively complex, as described above with the production of a new product, the goal or standards may involve much conscious deliberation, and it might be written on paper in great detail and/or it might be clearly stated verbally to the employees.

2) The entities that are to be controlled are delineated or selected, which can be individuals, a group, a department, a system, or the entire organization. In the management process, as it takes place in organizations, this will usually involve conscious deliberation. In daily life, when the situation is relatively simple, the individuals that are available may be selected with little or no conscious evaluation.

3) The behavior and work performance are monitored. In the simplest situations, such as in daily life, this step may take place on an unconscious level. In more complicated situations, such as the management in organizations, this step is carried out on a conscious level. It can include actual mathematical measurements of work performance in some cases.

4) Corrections are made based on work performance or behavior that deviates from the goal or set of standards. These corrections are usually made by verbal communications in simple situations, which may be coupled with explanatory hand movements, and other body language. In daily life situations that are relatively simple, body language might be used. For example, if someone violates a minor social standard, people might frown at him.

A concept very closely related to the controlling process is represented by the word controls. Hellriegel & Slocum defined this concept as the "Mechanisms used to ensure that behaviors performance conform to an organization's rules and procedures." (p 760)

Hellriegel & Slocum, in their book Management divide controls into two categories, which are "preventive and corrective controls." These ideas are discussed in the following two paragraphs.

Hellriegel & Slocum defined preventive controls as "mechanisms intended to reduce errors and thereby minimize the need for corrective action." (p 586) I am defining the concept with slightly different words, which perhaps slightly widen the concept, as follows. Preventive controls are techniques, equipment or feedback and correction methods, intended to prevent problems. Examples are: methods of preventing errors; strategies to prevent loss of market share; methods of protecting machinery from unexpected breakdowns; methods of monitoring plant personnel to prevent employee theft; methods and equipment to prevent fires; any technique to prevent failure; any method used to prevent employees or customers from breaking rules; etc.

Hellriegel & Slocum defined corrective controls as "mechanisms intended to reduce or eliminate unwanted behaviors or results and thereby achieve conformity with the organization's regulations and standards." (p 586) I am defining this concept with different wording, which perhaps slightly widened its meaning, as follows. Corrective controls are techniques, equipment or feedback and correction methods, intended to deal with problems that already exist. For example, methods of controlling shoplifting, methods of controlling insect infestations, methods of controlling employee absenteeism.

I will add to the above the concept of Performance controls. I am defining this concept as: techniques, equipment or feedback and correction methods, intended to maximize human or systems performance, including the physical or tangible results of the performance, in relation to obtaining a goal. The easiest example is a dancer trying to maximize his performance, in relation to a specific dance sequence. A similar example is an employee trying to maximize his job performance in relation to a specific task. Another example, is the feedback and correction process carried out by the engineering department when they are engaged in designing and testing a new product. A manager that is trying to maximize the efficiency and productivity of his organization, with the goal of increasing profits, is still another example, of performance controls.

A fourth type of control is destructive controls, which I am defining as any control mechanism that is dysfunctional or destructive to the organization. Destructive controls can sometimes be of personal value to specific individuals, such as the unionized employees. An example of destructive controls is a union that monitors the performance of the organization and overestimates the profits, and then demands high salary increases that eventually put the organization out of business^{^[23]}.

There are a number of entities that serve as control mechanisms for the organization, its subsystems and employees. These controlling entities can be divided into two categories, which are internal and external. Internal control mechanisms are entities created by the organization and its personnel, such as organizational rules, and production standards. External controls are controlling entities that exist in the external environment of the organization, such as the preferences of consumers or government regulations.

Hellriegel & Slocum, listed four basic entities that serve as sources of control, which are the first for items on the following list. I added an additional eight items that are significant sources of control^{^[24]}:

· "stockholder control Pressure from outside sources on organizations to change their behaviors." This is an external control, as described in this quotation. This type of control is usually constructive in nature, but under some conditions it can, be destructive. It can go against the interests of one or more of the following under certain circumstances: the people running the organization, the employees, the consumers, and the overall well-being of the organization. When stockholder control is functional, it can be either, corrective, destructive, performance, or preventive controls.

§ In small and medium size organizations, the stockholders are often the people that run the company, such as the chief executive officer and board of directors. In such cases, the control from stockholders is obviously internal in nature.

· "organizational control Formal rules and procedures for preventing and correcting deviations from plans and for pursuing goals." This is obviously an internal control mechanism. This can involve corrective and preventive controls. If the formal rules and procedures of the organization are highly dysfunctional, the control can be destructive in nature.

· "group control The norms and values that group members share and maintain through rewards and punishments." This is obviously an internal control mechanism, which can be formal or informal in nature. That is, the norms and values can be the result of official or semi-official organizational rules and procedures. Alternatively they can be unofficial norms and values created by the employees, which can be functional, neutral, or dysfunctional for the organization. Thus, group control can be corrective, destructive, performance, or preventive controls.

· "individual self-control The guiding mechanisms that operate consciously and unconsciously within each person." This is a type of internal control, but it is generally not created by the organization. It is the result of the internal beliefs, values, and psychological makeup of the individual. Such controls can help or hinder the organization, depending on how the controls manifest. For example, if the individuals have strong actualized values that relate to honesty and hard work, it will help the organization. However, if the employees have values that relate to maximizing their personal gain, at the expense of the organization, the controls would obviously be dysfunctional for the employer. Thus, individual self-control can be corrective, destructive, performance, or preventive controls.

· Managerial control is usually one of the primary controlling entities in a well‑run organization. This can involve corrective, performance, or preventive controls. If management or a specific manager is behaving in a dysfunctional way, it can also involve destructive controls.

· The consumer can serve as a powerful source of control over the organization. That is, a company that serves consumers can be controlled by consumer demand. This is obviously an example of external control. The control can be corrective, destructive, performance, or preventive controls.

· The city, state, and federal governments and their laws and regulations can exert considerable control over organizations and their management. This is obviously an example of external control. Such control can be corrective, destructive, or preventive controls.

· When organizations deal with international trade, foreign governments can control the organization and its management. Such controls can be corrective, destructive, or preventive controls.

· Technology can serve a controlling function. This can involve electronic technology controlling machines. It can also involve computer technology monitoring the performance of employees, which serves a controlling function because workers are aware that their job performance is being monitored.

· The organizational culture can serve as a source of control, with its related set of norms, values and beliefs. This is obviously a type of internal control, which can be corrective, destructive, performance, or preventive controls.

· The unofficial subculture of an organization can serve as a source of control. However, the unofficial subculture can control employees in ways that are counterproductive to the organization in some cases. For example, restrictive production norms can be a primary component of the organizational subculture of the factory workers. This can be seen in chapter 12, on the Hawthorne Studies.

· Unions are another source of control. This type of control can be classified as external or perhaps in-between external and internal. The control provided by unions is generally focused on the well-being of the employees. As far as the entire organization is concerned, such controls can be corrective, destructive, or preventive controls.

Thus, it is apparent, that controls do not always work in favor of the organization, and they are not always intentionally created by management. In some cases the controls evolve from daily interaction of people involved with the organization, or they can be created by external agencies or outsiders. This suggests the question: how do you create effective controls that work in favor of the organization? Hellriegel & Slocum (p 588) suggest the following^{^[25]}:

1) "For what desired behaviors and results should organizational controls be developed?" What are the factors that should be controlled?

2) "What are the costs and benefits of the organizational controls required to achieve the desired behaviors and results?" How much will it cost, and what will be the benefits, if the factors listed from step one are controlled.

3) "What are the costs and benefits of utilizing alternative organizational controls to obtain the desired behaviors and results?" Are there more effective or economical alternatives, that can be used to achieve the controlling objectives?

The general idea of the above can be stated by asking the questions: what do you want to control; why do you want to control it; how do you want to control it; what will be the cost benefit ratio for the control mechanism(s); are there more economical ways of achieving the same objective.

An interesting idea is suggested from the above paragraphs. The organization and its management apparently does not always create the controls^{^[26]}. Some are external and have different interests than management. Three of the primary controlling entities, besides management, involved with organizations, are 1) the stockholders, 2) the employees, and 3) the consumers. These controlling entities are stakeholders that generally have different interests; they may be in conflict with each other as well as with management. The primary objective of the stockholders, of most profit making organizations, is they want to maximize their return on their investment. That is, they generally want to make as much money as possible. Employees generally want good working conditions, good benefits, and they usually want to make as much money as possible also. The consumers usually want to get products and services of the highest possible quality at the lowest possible prices.

Thus, the production and economic gains created by an organization must be divided amongst three primary stakeholders. How such a division takes place is likely to be the result of the relative power position of the stakeholders. This idea is discussed in the following four paragraphs^{^[27]}.

If the stockholders have maximum power, the employees will probably get relatively low wages and little benefits, and working conditions will be based on maximizing financial gain, even if it puts the employees at a personal disadvantage. In addition, the consumers will have to pay relatively high prices for the goods or services produced by the organization. This situation is likely to manifest when there is an excessive labor force available to the organization and when there is little or no competition from other organizations, and the product or service is in very high demand.

When the employees have maximum power, profits might be reduced and the prices for the products or services produced by the organization might be relatively high. This can happen because employees salaries will be high, working conditions and benefits will be greatly influenced by the desires of the employees. Employees may be retained even if they are not really needed. The costs that result from high salaries, benefits, unnecessary employees, will be passed on to the consumer. This situation might manifest when the employees are in short supply. If the product is also in high demand and there is little competition, it will give the employees additional power, because it will be easy to pass on the costs to the consumer.

Employees can also have much power as a result of an organizational philosophy and culture that favors employees, or as a result of the controlling dynamics of unions. This can cause financial problems for the organization, if market conditions do not permit the passing on of the costs to the consumers.

The consumers have maximum power when there is a very large amount of competition between organizations providing the same product or service. In addition, if there is an over supply of the product or service, the consumer will even have greater power. This situation is often seen in contemporary organizations in certain manufacturing industries, and in the farming industry when there is a surplus of a specific crop. When the consumer has maximum power, prices are relatively low, and profits and salaries might be kept at a lower level than they would be otherwise. Under such conditions many companies may fail because they cannot obtain an adequate return on their investment. The companies may reduce their work force, to prevent bankruptcy.

In conclusion: It should be apparent from the above that there are many potential problems associated with the controlling process and with control mechanisms. If the controlling process is inadequate, there is a high probability of a failure in relation to goal attainment. There are many problems that can manifest as a result of such inadequacies. The following is a list of questions that can help with such problems:

(Note, the following six questions are numbered because they represent a series of connected ideas in relation to the leadership process.)

1) What is your primary goal, as created in the planning process? What performance standards or criteria you have to achieve, in the controlling process to achieve your primary goal.

2) What do you have to control to achieve your primary goal? Is it an employee, a group of employees, a group of volunteers, a group of friends, a department, a system, a subsystem, the entire organization? Do you have the capability and power to control this entity? Can you obtain help from a co-leader, if you do not have a capability to control the entity?

3) What type of performance do you have to measure or evaluate to control the relevant entity? Will simple observation of behavior be an adequate measure of performance?

4) Are you ready to compare the performance standards you set in step one, with the performance standards you measured? Do the standards match the actual performance? Are the performance standards achieved? Are the standards you set realistic, or are they too high or too low?

5) What corrections are required based on actual performance, when compared to the standards you set? Can you improve the performance? What changes would be required to improve the performance? If the performance remains the same will you reach your goal?

6) Based on the actual performance how long will it take to reach your goal? How much money will it cost to reach your goal based on the actual performance? Is the performance adequate from the perspective of time and money? Is there any way you can speed up progress or reduce costs?

· Are there any preventive, corrective or performance controls that you can use that will help you with the situation you are dealing with? If so, what are these controls?

· Are there any destructive controls interfering with your well-being or the well-being of the organization? If so, what are these destructive controls? What are all the possible ways of neutralizing or circumventing the destructive controls? What is the best way to neutralize these controls?

· What are the relevant controlling mechanisms involved with your problem? Are these controlling mechanisms intentionally created by you, your representatives or the organization? Are there controlling mechanisms that evolved over time? Are the controlling mechanisms functional? Are there any dysfunctional controlling mechanisms involved with the system?

· What type of controlling influence is provided by the stockholders? How can you deal with this controlling entity?

· What is the overall affect of the organizational controls, including formal rules and procedures? Can they be improved?

· Are there any group related controls involved with the system? Are these controls functional or dysfunctional?

· Are the individuals involved with you and/or the system self-controlled? In what way are these controls functional? In what way are they dysfunctional?

· What types of controls are provided by management? In what way are these controls functional? In what way are they dysfunctional?

· What is the quality of the controls offered by each individual or manager involved with the system? Do any of these individuals produce exceptionally functional controls? Do any of these individuals produce dysfunctional controls? How can you remove the dysfunctional controls?

· What is the specific nature of the controls produced by the consumers of your product? How can you respond to these controls in such a way as to satisfy consumer demands, and make a good profit?

· What types of controls are provided by the government? Are these controls functional or dysfunctional from your perspective, or from the point of view of your organization?

· Is your organization controlled as a result of foreign trade? How can you deal most effectively with these controls and the related set of requirements?

· Do you or your organization use any technological controls? Do these controls serve their function well? Can they be improved?

· Does your organization's culture offer functional controls? How can you improve these controls?

· Are there any subcultures involved with your organization? Are these subcultures functional or dysfunctional from the perspective of organizational well-being and goal attainment?

· What is the controlling affect of union members on your organization? How can you deal most effectively with this controlling force?

· What controls can you create that would increase the overall functionality of the system? What needs to be controlled in the system, and how can you create cost-effective controls?

· Is there any conflict between controlling forces, such as management, employees, stockholders, consumers? If so, how can you alleviate these problems? Which stakeholders have the most power? Is it management, the employees, the stockholders or the consumers? Can you list the stakeholders in descending order of power?

Chapter 9: Problem Solving, Creativity And Related Ideas

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Introduction and Definitions

There are many types of problems in organizations, as well as in daily life. Solving these problems can result in a more functional organization and an enhanced quality of life. Some problems require a considerable amount of creativity to solve, and some are routine difficulties with obvious solutions. The above suggests the questions: what precisely do the words problem and creativity mean? This will be discussed in the following paragraphs.

A definition of the word problem from Franklin Language Master electronic dictionary LM 5000 is: "something requiring thought and skill to arrive at a proper conclusion or decision." A definition from Robbins' Organizational Behavior is: "A discrepancy between some current state of affairs and some desired state." The first definition is not precise. Robbins' definition is a fairly good delineation of the concept. However, this chapter is dealing with problem solving, which implies obtaining a goal, which is the solution. Thus, I will provide my own definition, based on a goal, in the following paragraph.

A problem is a state of reality that an individual would like to change in such a way as to obtain a goal. The word goal means the solution to the problem. The words state of reality means in this definition any real or hypothetical set of: circumstances, entities, geometric relationships, factors, mathematical representations, situations, structures, symbols, etc. The word individual in the definition is used in a general sense and it means any entity that can engage in the problem-solving process, such as your self, a person, an organization, a computer, or even an intelligent animal. The words would like to change implies that a problem exists as a result of a desire for a change in a reality state. If there is no recognition of a specific reality state and/or no desire for an improved reality state by an individual, there is no problem, from the frame of reference of that individual. There might be dysfunctional circumstances, but such a condition might not be recognized or defined as a problem by the individuals involved with the situation.

The word problem can also be defined as: a set of circumstances that one would like to change to a more desirable reality state. The more desirable reality state is the goal or solution to the problem in this definition.

Creativity, and Problem Solving Formulas

Problem solving often involves creativity, which suggests the question: what is creativity? Hellriegel & Slocum defined creativity as: "The ability to visualize, foresee, generate, and manipulate new ideas." The Webster's dictionary defines it as: "1: the quality of being creative 2: the ability to create." I am defining creativity for this book as the ability to create new entities, such as new: methodologies, ideas, theories, structures, solutions to problems, works of art, etc. The word new in this definition means: new to the creator. For example, if an individual created an entity that was already invented with her own creative thoughts and efforts, the process would still be creativity.

A concept closely related to the above is the creative process, which is defined by Luthans & Hodgetts (p G3) as: "Generating new or unique ideas, involving four steps: preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification." There are other definitions and models of the creative process besides the above. I will present some of this information later on in this chapter, including a general model of the creative process. However, I believe it will be interesting to examine the four steps presented by Luthans & Hodgetts, as follows^{^[28]}:

1) "preparation" Is the process of preparing yourself for creative activities. This involves studying material that relates to your creative or problem solving efforts. This can involve formal learning, casual reading, discussions with others to gain information, asking questions, informal or formal experimentation to obtain data, etc.

2) "incubation” This step involves an incubation of the information that was obtained in step one and from earlier periods of study and experience. The theoretical idea is that the subconscious mind needs time to process the information into new forms that can be used in your creative efforts. During this period the mind arranges and rearranges the information into a form that might result in new insights or a new solution to the problem you are working on.

3) "illumination" This is the point where insight develops. The person might suddenly become aware of a new idea, solution, theory, structure, etc.

4) "verification" This involves testing of the new idea, solution, theory, methodology, structure, entity, etc, that became apparent in step three.

This four step creative process suggests a question, and some limitations of the method. That is, what if the incubation period, does not result in illumination, or if it results in insights that are not adequate to solve the problem you are working on? The answer is there are more sophisticated and effective methods of creativity and problem solving than the above. However, the above four step creative process sometimes works and these steps are often incorporated into more sophisticated methods.

Incidentally, I found from experience that, during the incubation period if I deliberately arrange and rearrange the relevant information with the writing process on a computer screen, I obtain many insights and potential solutions to problems (illumination). A method based on this idea, which is meant for very difficult problems and goals, is outlined below, in five steps:

1) Define the goal. The goal can be to solve a problem, insight into a specific area of study, the creation of an entity, or any objective. In the process of defining the goal, you should consider the feasibility of dividing it into smaller goals, which can be achieved easily. This idea is especially useful for very difficult problems. Sometimes a problem that cannot be resolved with conventional techniques can be solved if it is divided into smaller problems, which can be worked out individually.

This step, defining the goal, can be greatly facilitated by writing the information that you have on a computer screen, with appropriate software. This can include dividing the goal into sub-goals and estimating the cost and time involved for each of the subgoals. This can also be done at a later point in time.

2) Study the relevant material that relates to the goal you defined in step one. This can involve any type of study, such as reading, experimentation, formal classroom study, tutoring, learning from the experience of others, etc. The study should include material that directly relates to your goal coupled with information that is only indirectly related to the goal. This study should include a check with experts and/or the literature to see if there is an established formulation to obtain your goal. It is often useful to study the same goal from the perspectives of different disciplines, such as studying a human behavior problem, from a psychological, social psychological, a sociological, anthropological, and a psychiatric perspective. In general, the more detailed and prolonged the study the greater the chances of obtaining your goal, especially if it involves solving a difficult problem. (Keep in mind that this is the most important step on the list.)

After extensive study, you might want to go back to step one, and redefine your goal. This is especially useful if the information you obtained indicated that the goal cannot be obtained with the time, money, and expertise you have available.

3) Write what you know and have learned in relation to obtaining your goal, which should be done with a computer with word processing software. The writing process can start as soon as you start your problem solving efforts. However, it is especially important to write what you learned, and your thoughts and ideas after step two. This process can include writing questions that relate to your goal, and answering them in detail. Writing questions that have many answers can be especially useful, such as the following: What are all the possible causes for this problem? What are all the possible solutions to this problem? What are the names and telephone numbers of all the experts that I might be able to contact, who can help me obtain my goal? What are the names and numbers of all the people I know who can help me with this problem? What are all the methodologies that might help me obtain the goal? Can mathematics help me obtain relevant information? Will statistical analyses provide information I need to reach my objective?

When you start this step (step three) you can write with little concern for grammar, punctuation or organization. However, as you continue the process, you should put the most relevant information into an organized form. When the writing process, is coupled with arranging and rearranging information into a highly organized form, insights are likely to develop. This sometimes happens as a result of noticing one or more inconsistencies or failures in the theoretical framework you are developing. Such inconsistencies or failures, suggest questions. When you write out such questions and answer them, new insights may result.

4) Select the relevant information you obtained in the first three steps, and put aside the information that is not useful. Take this information and try to create a step by step plan to obtain your goal. This can be done in writing. It can be useful to estimate the time and cost needed to achieve each step of your plan.

5) Check the final solution or evaluate the goal that you obtained. If the outcome is satisfactory you solved your problem or obtained your goal. If it is not satisfactory repeat the above steps. Try to find out what went wrong with the plans and try to make the needed corrections.

The above, is an example of a problem solving formula that incorporates the creative process. There are many types of problem solving formulas, some of which involve the creative process and others that do not involve creativity. Some of these formulas are specialized for specific problems and others have general application. In general, there are probably far more problem solving formulas than there are human beings. Most people have many formulas in their mind that they consciously or unconsciously use to solve problems of various types. That is, most people, including managers and organizations go through a series of specific steps when they are trying to solve a problem or obtain a goal.

The relative capabilities of individuals, groups or organizations to solve problems or obtain goals, is very much determined by the appropriateness and effectiveness of the problem solving formulas that they are using. (The word your in the following sentences, means all of the following: yourself, your group, your department, your organization, etc.) Becoming aware of your formulas and their limitations can lead to an increase in your problem solving capability. You might find that some of the formulas you have been using unconsciously are ineffective or counterproductive, or cause significantly more problems than you started with. You will probably also find that some of your problem solving strategies work fine, and some of your formulas might work fairly well, but require some improvement. Thus, it will be helpful if we continue with our discussion of problem solving formulas and creativity.

The simplest problem solving formula can involve only three easy steps, without any creative process. Formulas similar to the following are probably carried out on a more or less unconscious level when most people face relatively simple problems.

1) problem recognition: This involves becoming aware that there is a problem.

2) planning a series of steps to solve the problem, and carrying them out: This is often done in the mind with simple problems.

3) testing to see if the problem was solved: This can be done with observation with simple problems.

A more complicated formula than the above can include one or two additional steps, such as searching for expert assistance and/or obtaining information to solve the problem. Perhaps the most useful formula for conventional problems can be represented in five steps, as follows:

1) Defined the problem or goal.

2) Study the problem or goal and related information that you need for your objective.

3) Consider expert assistance to help you solve your problem or goal. There are of course situations where much expert assistance is essential. There are other situations where expert help is totally unnecessary. The idea is to determine whether there is or is not a need for expert assistance in a particular situation.

4) Create a plan that will solve your problem or help you obtain your goal.

5) Evaluate the outcome to see if you solved your problem or obtained your goal. If you failed, evaluate all the above steps and other information and make appropriate corrections. This can involve repeating all of the steps one or more times. Difficult problems may require many repetitions of the above steps, or a more sophisticated problem solving formula.

A more complicated problem solving formula is presented in The Handbook of Problem Solving by Stephen J. Andriole, which he calls the problem-solving process. This formula is outlined in the first chapter of Andriole's book. It is apparently meant for very difficult problems that could not be solved in the mind of one individual. Andriole describes it in the glossary of his book (p 179) as follows:

"PROBLEM-SOLVING PROCESS. The process of tool assessment, organization, documentation, and defense, and the selection and implementation of descriptive, explanatory, predictive, prescriptive, and evaluative analytical methodologies-all in an effort to solve a specific analytical problem."

Chapters 2 through 10 of Andriole's book explains each element of the formula, ("problem-solving process”) which is summarized as follows^{^[29]}:

1) "PROBLEM-SOLVING TOOLS. Problem-solving talent, data and information, methods, approaches, time, and support" This refers to the resources needed for problem solving, such as: personnel with the needed abilities, your own problem solving skills, relevant information, knowledge of the methodology needed to solve the problem, and the time to do the required work to solve the problem. A deficiency in these tools can greatly reduce the chances of successfully solving the problem. Thus, this step includes a search, which can be internal or external, for individuals with the needed skills to carry out the tasks needed to solve the problem, unless you have all the required skills and time to do the work yourself.

2) "PROBLEM-SOLVING ORGANIZATION. The aggregate process comprised of requirements analyses, problem identification, problem structuring, constraint analyses, and project management." This includes defining the problem or problem identification, analyzing the structure of the problem, collecting relevant information, and managing the problem solving effort.

3) "DESCRIPTION. The process by which events and conditions are profiled in order to determine similarities, differences, ranges, variations, and interrelationships." This involves a description of the problem, which can be in the form of one or more memorandum, letters, reports, etc. The description can describe the problem and related data. This can include mathematical data that relates to the problem and its solution.

4) "EXPLANATION. The process by which events and conditions, often expressed as variables, are linked to one another in measurable relationships whereby the changes in one set of variables can be related to changes in another set of variables." This includes explaining how and why something happens or happened. The explanations can include mathematics and detailed written descriptions.

5) "PREDICTION AND FORECASTING The process by which future events and/or conditions are identified and assessed." This involves an assessment of the information available with the goal of determining what will happen in the future. The probabilities of various positive or negative outcomes might be estimated in mathematical terms. To obtain this insight, the problem solver might look at current trends, use subjective judgment, use the Delphi method, etc.

6) “PRESCRIPTION. The selection from competing alternatives of a single option. Recommendations made on the basis of analytical steps taken to resolve uncertainty in a decision situation." This step involves the decision-making process, which can be important in the problem solving process. It includes choosing between alternative possibilities, entities or courses of action, in relation to the problem solving effort. This step deals with choosing how something is going to be done, such as the following seven questions presented in Andriole's book in "Chapter 7 Prescription":

"1. How is the information that comes to the attention of decision- makers gathered and processed? 2. How are recommendations made and promoted? 3. How are general rules prescribed? 4. How are the general rules provisionally invoked in reference to conduct? 5. How are general rules applied? 6. How is the working of prescriptions appraised? 7. How are the prescriptions and arrangements entered into within the framework of such rules brought to termination?"

7) "EVALUATION. The process by which entities and processes are evaluated against sets of explicit evaluative criteria." This involves the assessment of various entities that are involved with the problem. For example, if the problem involved inadequate production, the relevant machinery and employees might be evaluated to determine what is the primary cause of the problem.

8) "DOCUMENTATION. Reports, memoranda, presentations, videotape, videodiscs, tape recordings, slides, viewgraphs, and all other written or audiovisual means by which analytical results are described." This step involves explaining the problem, the actions needed to solve it, and the solution, in some recorded form, such as a written record, a tape recording, a video, etc. This step is important to obtain funding and other resources, including the assistance of experts.

9) "DEFENSE. The process by which analytical solutions are explained, communicated, and defended usually via briefings, argumentation, and negotiation." The ideas, theories, and plans that relate to a problem solving effort often have to be defended. This step is important when the explanations for the problem, the plans, and proposed solution are to be evaluated by others. This can be done to interest experts in the problem solving effort or to obtain funding. Thus, without a successful defense the assistance and resources required to solve the problem may not be obtainable. The defense is especially necessary because people do not always read or understand all of the documentation. Such individuals can inadvertently create erroneous arguments against the proposed problem solving plan. A good defense will explain the relevant information and demolish invalid arguments, without insulting others. If there are any valid arguments against the plans or other documentation, involved with the problem solving effort, the course of action to take is to correct the deficiencies, and continue the defense based on the corrected material.

Andriole's problem solving formula is fairly extensive, but its structure is not convenient and it is not in a highly logical form. For example, problem identification should be the first item on the list. There are also certain steps that are often irrelevant for many types of problems, such as 9) defense. Of course, when steps are irrelevant in a specific problem solving situation they can be ignored. However, Andriole's problem solving formula, and his book, does not emphasize the most important components of problem solving, which are the: studying and learning process, the creation of a detailed step by step plan to solve the problem, obtaining financial resources for the problem solving effort and a feedback and correction procedure. The formula and book do not emphasize creative thinking either, which is important for very difficult problems that do not have apparent solutions. However, the book is written on a fairly sophisticated level, and the author probably assumed that the reader would be quite aware of the above, which are obvious necessities for difficult problems. However, I will present a twelve step formula that emphasizes the essential components of problem solving a little later in this chapter. As previously stated, one of the factors that determines problem solving capabilities is the formulas that are used to solve problems and obtain goals. Another factor is people, groups, and organizations have variations in their problem solving power. Specifically, there are variations in the expertise and financial resources available to solve problems and obtain goals. Highly educated people working at wealthy organizations with great technical resources and many experts, generally have much problem solving power.

Thus, it is probably apparent from the above, that two of the primary limitations of problem solving and goal attainment are financial limitations and lack of technical knowledge. In the case of an individual, her problem solving capability will probably be limited by her social class. If the individual comes from a poor and uneducated social class, she will have little problem solving power. Such an individual will not have the financial resources or knowledge needed to solve certain types of problems or obtain difficult goals. An individual in this category could probably not obtain useful assistance for difficult problem solving or goal attainment from her family or friends, because they most likely would have the same financial and educational limitations as she does. The situation, of course, would most likely be just the opposite with an individual that was from a wealthy and highly educated social class. However, even wealthy and educated people, groups, and organizations can be limited at times in problem solving and goal attainment because of lack of expertise or financial resources.

The above suggests the question: Is there a problem solving formula that can circumvent limitations that result from deficiencies in expertise and financial resources? The answer is yes. Even Andriole's formula (which was presented above) indirectly suggests some ways of circumventing these difficulties. (This involves obtaining personnel with appropriate skills, and documentation, which can be used to obtain resources.) The following twelve step formula is focused on obtaining expert assistance and resources, as well as suggesting a method of solving a problem or obtaining a goal. The twelve steps are presented after the delineation of the instructions for the formula, as follows:

General Instructions: The twelve steps in this formula are primarily meant for difficult problems and challenging goals. For less challenging objectives some of the steps will appear irrelevant and can be skipped. The steps are numbered from 1 to 12, which is the most convenient order to follow when using the formula. However, there are likely to be many situations where the formula will work better if the steps are performed in an order that differs from 1 to 12, such as 3, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. In addition, with certain problems and goals it might be necessary to repeat a step or return to it one or more times after other steps were completed. If there is a difficulty completing a step return to it after completing other steps on the list.

There are questions in this formula, which you are to answer. Type the questions and your answers into a computer with word processing software. Each answer should ideally be at least one paragraph long, with the question serving as an introductory topic sentence. Questions that are irrelevant to the problem solving effort should be either ignored or modified so they are relevant. In addition, all the writing that is done, in relation to this formula, should be typed into the computer with word processing software.

The formula contains the words you and your, but this does not imply that its application is limited to the individual. In addition, several people, a group, or even one or more departments of an organization can be using the same formula, simultaneously while working on the same problem. This is possible because the following formula utilizes computer technology, which allows a number of individuals to add information to the system simultaneously.

1) What is your objective; is it to find a solution to a problem, create a new entity, or some other goal? Write about your objective in detail, and explain why it is important.

2) Can you divide your goal into smaller and simpler problems or goals, that can be more easily obtained? If this might be possible, try to do it. That is, try to break your goal or problem into smaller units, and define these units in written language.

3) Study the information you need to obtain your objective. Determine the information you need to learn by answering the following questions. What information relates directly to the problem or goal you are working on? Is there any information that relates indirectly to your problem or goal that might be helpful in your efforts? Will it be helpful to study your problem or goal from many different disciplines, such as management theory, organizational behavior, sociology, anthropology, psychology, social psychology, political science, economics, etc.? That is, can a multidisciplinary approach help you solve your problem? Can you obtain the information you need from: books, documents in your organization, discussions or tutoring with experts, formal study in a school environment, informal study methods, practice, formal experimental techniques, informal experimentation, the computer, the Internet, the library, discussions with employees, observations, questionnaires given to experts, questionnaires given to a sample of consumers or other relevant individuals, etc? In addition, make a written list of questions you want answered in relation to your study efforts. Place your questions in the computer in order of importance. When you obtain answers write them up in detail under the appropriate questions. Study all the information you obtain and place your notes in the computer. Keep in mind the primary objective with this step is to learn how to solve the problem you are working on.

Prolonged study is usually the most important factor to solve very difficult problems or to obtain an extremely challenging goal. For easier objectives, it might only be necessary to spend several minutes to study a few simple facts.

4) Use questions to help obtain your objective. Type into the computer a series of questions that relate to your problem, your goal and your studying efforts. If you are dealing with a difficult goal or problem, try to create as many questions as you can, and than answer them in detail. Your list should include the following questions, which can be modified to make them more relevant to your objective. Based on your knowledge, experience and the material you studied in step three, what are all the possible methods that can help you solve your problem or obtain your goal? What are all the possible causes for the problem you are working on? List the answers to this question in order of significance. Can the problem be represented in terms of a cause and effect diagram? Is there any testing method to determine what the real cause for the problem is? What are the names and telephone numbers of all the experts and knowledgeable individuals that might be able to help you solve your problem or obtain your goal? What are all the methodologies that might help you obtain your objective? Will mathematics or formal logic help you solve your problem or obtain your goal? Can inductive or deductive reasoning help you solve your problem or obtain your goal? Can statistics help you solve your problem? Can computer technology help you obtain your objective? Can a simulation model help you understand or solve your problem? Can a simulation model help you test possible solutions? Are there any possible risks involved with your problem solving efforts? If there are risks, how can they be eliminated or reduced? How might your problem solving effort affect the system? Are there any risks of unanticipated or unwanted consequences associated with your problem solving efforts? Did you study enough to solve your problem? Should you return to step three and continue studying? Are there any gaps in your knowledge as far as your problem solving efforts are concerned?

5) Type your ideas, and thoughts, into the computer. Feel free to write as much as possible if you are attempting to obtain a difficult objective. At this point, it is not necessary to focus on grammar, organization, punctuation, or spelling. However, try to avoid unnecessary disorganization or errors, because that will make your work more difficult later.

6) This step involves a selection process. Before beginning this process, make a copy of all the data you compiled on another file. This process starts by examining all the data, including the questions and answers, you typed into your computer. Select the information and ideas that appear to be most useful for your objective. You will probably have much useless information, including many ideas that are not feasible. Before rejecting ideas that are not feasible ask yourself why they are not feasible? Then ask yourself how can they be made feasible? If possible, ideas should be tested out before they are rejected. It is important to exclude useless data, but it is necessary to be extremely cautious not to exclude information that might lead to a unique solution or path to your goal. If you are not sure if information is useful or useless save it, until you are sure that you cannot use it. If you still have information and ideas that are not useful, repeat the above a number of times, until you have removed most if not all of the useless data.

7) Put the information and ideas you selected in step six, into an organized form, and remove any grammar and spelling errors. This can be done with the word processing software functions, such as the copy function, the cut and paced function, the delete function, etc. Rewrite any ideas that are not clearly delineated. As you rewrite look for inconsistencies in your logic, hypothetical or theoretical framework, because correcting such inconsistencies can lead to valuable insights. In general, the process of rewriting, organizing and removing errors can lead to a great deal of insight, which can help you reach your objective. The above can be repeated one or more times if necessary, to obtain a highly organized document.

8) Try and create a plan to solve your problem or obtain your goal, which should be primarily based on the information you organized in step six. However, you can still use information from other sources if it is helpful. Refine the plan you created. Write it out in terms of a series of steps, if possible. Try and estimate the time and money involved in completing each step. Try to determine the materials and assistance needed to complete each step. Try and estimate the possible risks involved with each step of your plan. Try to determine the total cost of completing your plan and obtaining your objective in terms of time, money, effort, risk, materials, etc. Make any needed modifications in your plan as a result of the above estimates.

If you have created a good plan that is likely to lead to your objective, go on to step nine. However, if you were not able to create a satisfactory plan, consult experts or other knowledgeable individuals for assistance and repeat the steps of this formula. Step three is the primary item to repeat and focus on, because it involves the studying and learning you need to obtain your objective. That is, an inability to create the plans needed to solve a problem or obtain a goal suggests lack of relevant knowledge, which might be remedied by further study.

9) If you need to obtain resources, to reach your objective, such as workers, machinery, tools, workspace, money, consider writing a report. A report can sometimes be used to obtain funding from your company, another organization, or from a government agency. Take your refined plan and any other information you wrote for the above steps, and rearrange it into a report, with the word processor functions. You can add any additional information or ideas if it is needed to create a good report. The report should have a summary on the first page. It should be written so it can be easily understood by the people who will read it. Your report should be created in a way that shows the benefits of your project from the perspective of the people who may provide the needed resources.

10) Try and obtain support for your plan from experts and people with power. This should include signed correspondence supporting your plan, your objective, your character and abilities. If you have to modify your report, your plan, or even your objective, to obtain such support, it will probably be worthwhile. In addition, be prepared to explain and defend your plans and other documentation, which may be necessary to win the acceptance of experts and other people with power.

11) Try and win unofficial acceptance of your project from the people that will supply the resources, before you officially submit your plan. This can be done with informal discussions and short letters from yourself and your prestigious supporters. It may be best to do this over a period of days, weeks or even months, which will allow the officials the time needed to become familiar with you, your plan, and your objective. If an official intentionally or inadvertently expresses some doubt about your efforts and plans, it can suggest one of the following: they need more information; you have to modify your plans or objectives to meet their requirements; you have to improve your proposed solution, goal or plans; you are discussing your project at the wrong point in time; you are requesting help with your project from the wrong source. In general, the time to submit your report officially is when the feedback suggests that the officials understand your plan, solution or goal, trust you, and appear to be willing to accept your project.

The procedures suggested in this step are generally quite important, because top officials often do not have the time needed to read and evaluate every project that is submitted to them. They may make a decision based on whether or not they know and trust the person that submitted the plan.

12) The final step is feedback and correction. This involves checking and testing every aspect of the plan you created to reach your objective. It also involves evaluating your efforts in relation to every step in this formula. The final and most important evaluation is to determine if your plan led to the solution or goal you were trying to obtain.

If any of the above failed, modifications and corrections are needed in: your plan, your methods, or any other component that was involved with your efforts. Before such changes are made, it might be necessary to determine what went wrong, and to do additional studying. In addition, requesting assistance from experts or people who have the needed experience can be helpful. It will probably be necessary to repeat most or all of the twelve steps in this formula, especially step three, which involves studying and learning how to obtain your objective. If you are dealing with a fairly difficult problem or trying to obtain a very challenging goal, it might be necessary to repeat the twelve steps and related work a number of times before you achieve success.

The above formula incorporates all of the components needed for difficult problem solving, including the creative process. At this point, I believe it will be useful to return to a discussion of creativity. We already discussed the creative process, as delineated by Luthans & Hodgetts. I will now present a more fundamental model of the process, which is a series of steps that are usually involved with the creation of a new entity, new methodology or new solution to a problem^{^[30]}. The creative process, as described in the following model, is not a problem solving formula, but it can be part of such a formula. The process, as presented in the model that follows, can be carried out consciously or unconsciously by an individual, group, organization, a computer, as well as by a society or nature in an evolutionary sequence. This will become apparent from the five fundamental steps involved in this model, which are as follows^{^[31]}:

1) A general search, which is not very selective, is carried out for factors that might be useful in obtaining a goal. The factors can be ideas, structures, geometric relationships, entities, methods, or just about anything else that might be useful in obtaining the goal. (At this point the goal may or may not be precisely defined. The goal can be to solve a problem or obtain some other objective, such as the creation of a new entity.)

2) The factors that were obtained in step one are evaluated for usefulness in relation to the goal. The useful factors are selected and the remainders are discarded.

3) One or more factors that were selected are applied to achieve the goal. This can involve placing the factor(s) in specific arrangements, or combining them to a preexisting entity. In addition, it can sometimes involve using a selected factor in a new way, such as using a carefully selected stone as a hatchet.

This step can also involve the further evaluation of the usefulness of the factor(s). There can be a trial and error process to see if the factor(s) fit(s) physically, logically, or functionally into an arrangement that relates to the goal.

4) Tests are carried out to see if the goal has been achieved. In some cases a number of possibilities may have been created, and the testing is used to select the most feasible or effective solution or prototype. The selected solution or prototype might be further improved and/or tested before it is finally used.

5) If the solution or prototype is reasonably effective it might be applied in a practical way, which might include duplication of it on a relatively large scale. Examples are the mass production of a new product, the mass acceptance of a new cultural component (such as style of dress), and in a biological evolutionary system, the natural selection of a new animal species, which results in proliferation of the species.

The above model fits the various categories of brainstorming. It is also interesting to note that the model also fits the evolutionary processes that take place in nature and in societies. At this point it might be useful to discuss this process in a general sense. The evolutionary process is a trial and error process that takes place spontaneously, over a period of time. It involves reducing or eliminating certain entities (which are unfit, weak, undesirable, or useless) and facilitates the development of other entities (which are fit, strong, desirable, or useful). This idea will be discussed in the following paragraphs, which will lead to a discussion of the evolutionary process in relation to organizations and problem solving.

We first learned about the concept of evolution in relation to biology, from Darwin. This process involves the production of many genetic variations, which more or less happens by random chance. The living entities that survive and pass on their genes are selected by environmental conditions, which include competing plants and animals. That is, the animals and plants that are not fit to survive in the specific environment die early and eventually fail to pass on their genes. These living entities are in effect selected out and removed by environmental conditions. The plants and animals that are fit to survive in the given environment reproduce and pass on their genes.

Social evolution is more or less similar to biological evolution. It involves the selection by society of entities, ideas, or any component that fits in well with either its main culture or one or more of its subcultures. Any component that does not fit in well, even if it becomes popular for a while, will eventually be rejected, removed from the society, or greatly reduced in number.

My primary reason for discussing this topic relates to the evolutionary processes that take place in organizations. Ideas, thoughts, beliefs, methods, cultures and subcultures that exist in organizations can develop as a result of the evolutionary process. In addition, solutions to problems, and improvements in methods can also develop as a result of an evolutionary process. This suggests an interesting idea. Is it possible to (deliberately) start an evolutionary process that will lead to a solution to a problem, an improvement in a methodology or product? The answer is yes. For example, it is possible to produce many variations of a product, and see which variation sells best over an extended period of time. It is also possible to make gradual product improvements over an extended period of time, and see which modification improves sales. The product variations that are not selling well can be discontinued, and money and effort can be put into the product variations that are selling well. This can involve further gradual improvements in the product.

In general, a number of variations, which involve potential improvements, can be created gradually over an extended period of time, in relation to an entity or method. These variations can be evaluated over a period of many weeks, months or years in regard to utility. The variations that are less successful are likely to be gradually rejected as a result of inferior utility. The variations that are more successful are likely to become highly accepted or popular as a result of superior utility. The superior entities can replace the inferior entities and they can be gradually improved further, with a repetition of this evolutionary sequence.

Many of us, including people involved in the management process, carry out an evolutionary process in our occupational roles and in our daily lives. However, we are generally not aware of this process. If we become more aware of the evolutionary process in our business and personal lives we might be able to control the results to our benefit. Some examples might be insightful. We might choose our friends without careful thought. We might become acquainted with the people in our environment, and we may select the individuals that we find satisfying or ethically acceptable over a period of time. We might inadvertently or intentionally reject or maintain a distance between other individuals that do not meet our selection criteria. We select many of our behavior patterns, including bad habits, by an evolutionary process. We might smoke one cigarette as an experiment, because our friends smoke, and if we find it enjoyable we might eventually start to smoke on a regular basis, and become addicted to nicotine. If we find smoking undesirable, we might develop a no smoking behavior pattern. Another example is the manager that hires her own employees might have selection criteria that relate to personality traits and work performance. Employees that do not meet the criteria might not be hired, or if they are, they might be encouraged to quit or they might be fired. Employees that meet the criteria might be encouraged to stay on the job. Such employees might be given compliments, raises and promotions.

The previous example can be extended to certain organizations that have a specific set of requirements for employees, and a clearly defined culture. (See the chapter on organizational culture.) When this is the case, the requirements of the organization and its culture are likely to act as an evolutionary selection process for employees. Over a period of time certain personality types that fit the organizational philosophy and culture will remain with the organization, and other personality types will be rejected.

Thus, it can be helpful to understand the evolutionary processes that take place in our environment. We do not want to be rejected. We also do not want to select inadvertently, such as the inadvertent selection of undesirable: friends, habits, ways of thinking, etc. In addition, if we truly understand the evolutionary process we can sometimes use it for problem solving and goal attainment.

Another creative process is brainstorming. This is a fairly popular technique that involves the basic creative model that was previously discussed. Brainstorming is defined in the glossary of Robbins' Organizational Behavior, as: “An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives." Hellriegel & Slocum defines the term (p 759) as: "An unrestrained flow of ideas in a group with all critical judgments suspended." Brain storming involves a group of people, usually numbering from five to twelve, who are instructed to verbalize their ideas, without critical evaluation, in relation to a specific problem or goal. The ideas are recorded by the group facilitator or other individual. The recording is best done on a blackboard or similar device, so all the group members can read the ideas that have already been suggested. This is an important component of brainstorming, because the ideas that were already presented, and placed on the blackboard for all to see, may stimulate the creative thinking of each group member. The members of the group are instructed by the facilitator as follows (as outlined by Alex Osborn, the inventor of the brainstorming technique)^{^[32]}:

1) "Criticism is ruled out. Negative evaluations of ideas must be withheld until later." If this rule was not followed it would inhibit many of the group members from contributing ideas, especially original thoughts. New ideas can sound nonsensical and impractical, especially before the idea is modified for application. Thus, many group members would be inhibited if they thought their ideas would result in criticism.

2) "Freewheeling suggestions are welcomed. The wider the ideas, the better. It is easier to tame down an idea than to perk it up." Wild ideas can sometimes be modified into practical solutions or they can stimulate creative thinking. If the wild idea is funny, it can put the group in an uninhibited state. That is, once a few wild ideas are voiced, the group members will most likely feel free to present their thoughts, without fear of embarrassment.

3) "Quantity is wanted. The greater the number of ideas, the greater the likelihood of winners." This is a primary component of the basic model of creativity that I presented earlier. It is part of natural evolutionary systems. That is, a huge number of genetic variations of both plants an animals have been produced by nature, and a relatively small number of species are selected by environmental conditions for long term survival and reproduction. The same principle is involved with brainstorming. That is, a huge number of ideas are produced, and after the brainstorming is completed, only a few good ideas are selected.

4) "Combinations and improvements are sought. In addition to contributing ideas of your own, you should suggest how the ideas of others can be turned into better ideas or how two or more ideas can be joined into still another one." As suggested above, often new ideas are impractical, but they can be modified into practical ideas. This rule can focus the group's attention away from criticism, toward attempts to improve the ideas offered by the group members.

To facilitate creative thinking, Alex Osborn created a list of seventy-five questions, which were meant to be voiced by the facilitator, when needed in the brainstorming session. A sample of these questions is as follows: ^{^[33]}

· "How can this issue, idea, or thing be put to other uses?" Finding additional uses for an entity can sometimes result in true innovations. For example, microwaves were originally used in radar and high frequency radio transmission systems. Someone came up with the idea of using microwaves for heating and cooking, which resulted in a new type of oven.

· "How can it be modified?" Modifying a useless idea can sometimes result in an excellent solution to a problem. Even good ideas can sometimes be modified into ideas that are even better.

· "How can it be substituted for something else, or can something else be substituted for part of it?" When a new product is created, its utility and potential market is often determined by what it can be substituted for. A good example is the steam engine was substituted for the power produced by horses.

· "How could it be reversed?" Sometimes reversing the way an entity functions can result in a new product. For example, a steam engine is essentially a pump working in reverse. In addition, sometimes attempting to reverse an idea, even if it cannot be reversed in a sensible way, can stimulate the mind, which can result in totally new insights and ideas.

· "How could it be combined with other things." To use many inventions it is necessary to figure out how it can be combined with other entities. An example is the gasoline engine, which was essentially combined with a horse carriage to create an automobile.

A brainstorming session can sometimes result in the development of good solutions or innovations. However, most of the ideas that develop are likely to be impractical, unworkable, unrealistic or in a raw state requiring further development. Thus, a primary task is to sort out the useless ideas and select the few ideas that can be developed into useful solutions or innovations. This selection process is carried out after the brainstorming session has been completed. It might be carried out by upper management, the management of a specific organizational department, or another group or individual. In theory, it could also be carried out by the participants of the brainstorming group after the brainstorming session has been completed.

The above discussion suggests the obvious question; does brainstorming really work? Is it an effective strategy to develop new ideas and solve problems? The use of the technique sometimes results in the development of highly useful ideas. The simple brainstorming technique, as presented above, is probably more effective in nontechnical creative tasks, such as developing advertising slogans. In fact, it was created primarily for that purpose. The inventor, Alex Osborn, was an advertising executive.

The above suggests the question: what does research indicate about brainstorming?^{^[34]} The answer is, it is more effective to develop creative ideas by working alone. For example, if you have five people, you can obtain more ideas from them, in a given period of time, if they work alone. However, this does not mean that brainstorming groups do not work, it means that an equal number of individuals brainstorming alone will be more efficient. This, is probably especially the case when working with technical material that involves complicated logical and/or mathematical relationships, because it requires much time and a high level of concentration.

The superior creative capability of people working alone is no mystery to individuals who are familiar with group dynamics. Most people are somewhat inhibited by a group structure. They tend to be influenced and limited in their verbalizations by a relatively small number of group participants who do most of the talking. Another limiting factor of brainstorming groups is: most people, especially in the work environment, do not want to present ideas that might be misinterpreted, and which night reflect negatively on them as employees or coworkers. They do not want to offend people who have more power than they do, such as their supervisor or boss. If they neglect this concern, they might be risking their relationships with their employer and coworkers as well as jeopardizing their employment. Thus, a participant in a group might only want to present ideas that would not be offensive and would please her boss. This can severely limit the creative production of a brainstorming group. Another dynamic that might limit the effectiveness of brainstorming groups was suggested by Michael Diehl and Wolfgang Stroebe in 1991, which is as follows. When an individual is a group member, she cannot talk until she is called on. If she gets an idea, she might have to hold it in memory, until she is permitted to speak. During this time, she cannot engage in creative thinking, because her memory and her efforts are focused elsewhere. That is, her efforts are focused on retaining the idea and getting the attention of the group facilitator, which wastes time and effort. When working alone, the individual simply writes down ideas as soon as it comes to her. She does not have to waste time and effort to get the attention of the group facilitator.

In spite of the relevant inefficiency of brainstorming it is still frequently used. Brainstorming groups probably perform additional functions besides creative thinking. Bringing people together, in a group when they are faced with a difficult task or a threatening problematic condition can sometimes be very reassuring and emotionally satisfying. When people are given an assignment to work alone, to create new ideas, there is always the possibility of procrastination, especially if the task is difficult or anxiety provoking. The brainstorming group eliminates this type of procrastination problem.

A fairly good alternative to the brainstorming group is suggested by the above paragraphs. One or more individuals brainstorming alone can be quite effective. This technique is probably most effective if there are no time limits placed on the brainstorming individual(s). They can carry a pad with them to write down their ideas, as they come to mind. They can even use information from a large number of sources, such as books and friends, to stimulate their creative thinking. This technique allows the individual(s) all the time needed to work on problems that might be too difficult or technical for a conventional brainstorming group. Brainstorming alone is also excellent for personal problems, where the use of a group might be impractical. Of course this technique does not really replace the conventional brainstorming group. It is apparent that brainstorming groups have their special advantages as well as limitations.

The above discussion suggests the question: Is it possible to circumvent the difficulties with brainstorming groups and create a more effective methodology? The answer is found with modern computer technology. There is a variation of the technique called electronic brainstorming, which is defined by Hellriegel & Slocum, (p 761) as: "Use of technology to input and automatically disseminate ideas in real time over a computer network to all team members, each of whom may be stimulated to generate other ideas." This method involves a number of computers connected together. The physical location of the computers and the group participants is irrelevant. That is, the group members and their computers can be in the same room, spread throughout the building, located in different areas of the United States or spread throughout the world. The group participants can type in their ideas at any point in time, even if another person is typing in her idea simultaneously.

There are software packages that were specifically created for electronic brainstorming. One package is made by Group Systems and it is called Electronic Brainstorming. This software is especially created to conceal the identity of the group participants. When an idea is typed into the computer system it appears on the computer screens in random order.

Thus, electronic brainstorming appears to eliminate the difficulties associated with conventional brainstorming. With the electronic technique, it is even possible to extend the group meeting, for hours, days, weeks, or months, or even to have it as a continuous ongoing process. This is possible, because at any point in time an individual can enter the system and type in her idea(s). The group members do not have to be concerned about what others will think of their ideas, because the identities of all the participants are concealed. This is a great advantage, but it also is a highly significant disadvantage, because the brainstorming participants do not get credit for good ideas.

Obtaining credit for innovative and creative ideas is extremely important in most fields, especially in engineering and science. Thus, the employees might refuse to submit their best ideas into an electronic brainstorming system, because they might not get credit for it. It is also important for management to know who is submitting highly useful or profitable ideas, because that is the individual that should be consulted on an ongoing basis, and that is the individual that the company would want to promote. This disadvantage might be circumvented if the individual that is submitting a potentially valuable idea, documents her submission by submitting it in writing (before it is inserted into the electronic brainstorming system) to another individual who can act as a witness.

Most of the benefits of electronic brainstorming can be achieved with written statements, which can be anonymously submitted to a group facilitator, such as by mail or a suggestion box set up specifically for the purpose. The group leader=s task would be to place the suggestions on a blackboard or bulletin board, so all the participants can see the ideas that were developed by other group members. This technique, which I will call, brainstorming by documentation, would be much slower than electronic brainstorming. However, this method can be set up in such a way that one person records who submitted each idea, with the understanding that there names will only be associated with the idea, if the submission is accepted and used by the organization.

A modified version of the above can be used to obtain ideas from individuals that are not employed by the company on an ongoing basis, such as experts, suppliers, wholesalers, retailers customers and potential consumers. This can be done through the mail, and I will call it brainstorming by mail. To use this method, you only have to explain a problem in writing, provide appropriate instructions about brainstorming, and supply a series of general questions or statements such as the following:

What are all the possible solutions you can suggest for this problem? What are all the possible ways that this problem might be solved? List all the possible solutions to this problem. List all the things that are wrong with our product. List all of the ways that our product might be improved.

To stimulate the creativity process, with brainstorming by mail you can send the responses of the participants back to them, requesting more ideas, and improvements in the already submitted ideas. This can be done a number of times, until you have achieved your brainstorming objective. Hence, brainstorming by mail more or less resembles the Delphi technique, which will be discussed later in this chapter.

Thus, there are potentially a limitless number of variations of the brainstorming technique. Five variations were presented above. These techniques, as well as any creativity method, can probably be made more effective, especially for difficult problems, if the participants engage in serious study of relevant material, before they attempt to solve problems or develop new ideas. The more detailed and prolonged the study, the greater the chances of obtaining satisfactory results from the creativity methodologies. Multidisciplinary studies can sometimes be especially useful, because it can suggest new ways of, looking at, and obtaining solutions and goals. However, for relatively simple tasks, such as developing conventional advertising slogans, study is probably not usually necessary.

Other Techniques That Can Help With Problem Solving And Goal Attainment

Another problem solving technique, which is more structured than conventional brainstorming, involves creating a cause and effect diagram. This method was invented by Kaoru Ishikawa and the diagram that results from the method is sometimes called Ishikawa diagram or a fishbone diagram. Hellriegel & Slocum, described this technique in their book (p 286), and they defined it as: "A chart that helps team members display, categorize and evaluate all the possible causes of an effect, which is generally expressed as a problem." This technique can be used with conventional brainstorming, and it is often done in a group situation similar to a brainstorming group. However, there is no reason why one individual could not perform the task working alone, such as for a personal problem. The method involves creating a cause and effect diagram by means of the following steps:

1) How can the problem be stated in terms of a result? That is, the problem is delineated in terms of an effect. The group must come to an agreement in this regard. To do this they may use brainstorming or other techniques.

2) What are all the factors involved with the problem? That is, the group identifies all the possible components that are involved with the problem.

3) How can the factors that relate to the problem be put into categories? That is, the group tries to put the factors they obtained in step two into categories. (This step can be done as part of step two or it can be done after step four.) With this method commonly used categories are: equipment, materials, methods and people. Other possible categories include the following: psychological, sociological, biological, chemical, physical, system, subsystem, internal environment, external environment, management, employees, consumers, cultural, economic, political, etc.

4) What are the cause and effect relationships between the factors and the problem? The group attempts to answer the question: "What causes this cause?" That is, they try to delineate the cause and effect relationships, such as factor A caused or contributed to factor B, which caused or contributed to factor C, which caused or contributed to factor D, etc., which caused the undesirable effect, which is the problem.

5) What are the top three to five root causes in each of the categories that the group delineated? That is, the group attempts to simplify their information, by selecting three to five factors, in each category. For example, they might select factors A, B and C from the equipment category and reject factors D, E and F. The same process of selection and rejection of relevant factors are repeated for the other categories, such as materials, methods and people. This is risky, because it is easy to reject (inadvertently) factors that might be primary contributing components to the problem. The factors that the group selected are considered to be the root causes of the problem. They are put on a diagram, with arrows indicating how they contributed to the problem. This generally results in a diagram that more or less resembles the bone configuration in a fish.

I believe when making such a diagram it might be better under certain conditions, to indicate how the factor relates to the cause and effect sequence. The following examples will clarify this idea. Factor A may have caused factor B. Factor B definitely contributed to factor C. Factor D was caused by an interaction of factor C and X. Factor X was probably caused by either factors, W, Y or Z. Factor F influenced the manifestation of factor P, which influenced the manifestation of factor S. Factor W partly influenced the manifestation of factor V. Factor H was caused by one or more unknown factors.

6) How can the result(s) from step five be evaluated, and corrected in relation to its utility as a problem solving tool? Perhaps the easiest way to evaluate the usefulness of the information obtained in step five is to apply it to the problem solving effort. This will indicate its relative degree of accuracy and utility. It will also suggest deficiencies in the information, which can be corrected with further creative thinking efforts.

I added this step, because it is usually necessary to evaluate and correct information that relates to a problem solving effort. If this is not done, it is easy to develop belief systems that have no validity or direct utility in solving the problem.

The above technique can be modified in various ways to fit the specific set of circumstances surrounding a problem. In some cases, it might be more effective to delineate multiple effects, and show the relationships in a configuration that does not look like a traditional fishbone diagram. For example, it is possible to have a cause and effect sequence that involve a circular relationship between factors.

It is possible to draw a fishbone diagram to (deliberately) create a desirable effect, which can be a goal. For example, it might be possible to create a cause and effect diagram to determine how to increase the profitability and size of a company. It is also possible to create a cause and effect diagram to delineate how a positive effect historically resulted. For example, cause and effect diagrams can be created for a number of highly successful organizations involved in manufacturing. Then it might be possible to determine the strategies that can maximize chances of success for a new company involved in manufacturing. That is, a fishbone diagram can be created for the new company, with the aim of duplicating the success of the older companies.

The factors that effect or influence, employees, machinery, organizations, and in general reality, can form various configurations, which might become apparent if they are placed on a cause and effect diagram. There are essentially a limitless number of such configurations. The most interesting of these arrangements of factors are discussed in the following paragraphs.

One of the simplest configurations can be called the domino effect. This configuration involves factor A causing factor B which causes factor C, etc, with the final effect being either positive or negative depending on the nature of the factors. This can involve one event causing another event, etc., which ultimately causes a problem. It can also involve a sequence of problems that were all caused by the first problem in the sequence. A hypothetical example of the domino effect is as follows:

A Maintenance technician is absent from a production facility for two weeks. This resulted in breakdowns of the machinery. The unskilled employees repaired the machines to the best of their ability. The machines were not repaired correctly; as a result a fatal accident took place. The union blamed the accident on management and called a strike. The CEO blamed the behavior of the employees for the accident and refused to negotiate with the union. The union got angry, and demanded better working conditions, more maintenance personnel, and large salary increases to compensate the workers for dangerous conditions. As a result the strike continued for many weeks and all production was stopped. This resulted in the loss of customers to competitors. When the strike was finally over, the company failed to win back its customers. This resulted in financial problems, which ultimately led to bankruptcy and unemployment for all involved.

Another configuration can be called the vicious cycle. This starts out in a way that is similar to the domino effect, but it repeats in increasing cycles. That is, factor A causing factor B which causes factor C, etc, which causes an effect, and the effect increases one or more of the factors, which increases the effect. This cycle can repeat many times under certain conditions, with a more or less continuous increase in the effect. The effect of the vicious cycle is usually considered to be negative, (often a serious problem) but it can in reality be quite positive. There are people who started out with minimum financial resources, and became extremely rich and developed huge corporations in a manner that fits the vicious cycle. A hypothetical example is as follows:

An investment was made in a small business, which was operated with great skill. This resulted in a considerable profit, which was used to expand the size of the business. This resulted in even more profits. These profits were used to expand the business even further, which ultimately resulted in even more profits, which were also reinvested in the business. This resulted in many repetitions of the above cycle, involving reinvested of profits and business expansion.

Another configuration of factors can be called the landslide. This involves one or more factors causing an effect. The resulting effect directly or indirectly causes other effects, which directly or indirectly cause other effects, etc. The effects of the landslide can be either positive, negative, or a combination of desirable and undesirable effects. The negative version of the landslide involves one problem causing other problems, which cause even more problems. Identifying potential negative landslides in its earliest stages and stopping the sequence can save a considerable amount of time, money, effort and prevent much unnecessary suffering. A hypothetical example of a negative landslide is as follows:

The hypothetical organization is controlled by a CEO that is experiencing a personal crisis. This causes her to make organizational decisions that cause emotional stress and other problems for the employees. The stressful condition of the employees results in an increase in absenteeism, a reduction in sales, an increase in product defects, and conflicts with the union, and lawsuits from unsatisfied customers. This results in severe financial problems for the organization, which results in a reduction in stock value and a much lower credit rating. As a result of the lower credit rating and the financial problems the company cannot borrow money. The debts accumulate, and the company is forced into bankruptcy. This results in unemployment for the CEO and the people that worked under her.

A self-fulfilling prophecy can also be represented with a cause and effect sequence. It results when a belief of an individual, group or organization directly or indirectly causes a specific behavior pattern that causes an effect. This can be represented as factor A, which is the belief, causing factor B, which is the behavior pattern, which causes the effect. The effect of the self-fulfilling prophecy is usually considered to be an undesirable outcome (a problem). This is certainly not always the case. The outcome of a self-fulfilling prophecy can be quite positive. An example is a manager who believes she is liked by the employees, might treat them well, which can cause the workers to be truly fond of the manager.

Theory X and theory Y, which was previously discussed, can also involve a self-fulfilling prophecy, in some cases. Managers that believe in theory X might treat the employees in a manner that motivates the workers to behave in a way that is consistent with theory X. That is, the theory X manager can inadvertently motivate her employees, to avoid responsibility, to try to avoid work, to display low levels of intelligence, to avoid any creative efforts, etc. This can be represented in terms of factors as follows: factor X (a managerial belief in theory X) causes factor B (the behavior of the manager), which causes the effect (employees behavior that is consistent with theory X). The same idea can apply to managers that adhere to theory Y. That is, they might treat their employees in the way that results in bringing out their better qualities, such as responsibility, industriousness, intelligence and creativity. Of course, the above does not imply that a belief in theory X or theory Y will always result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. The point is that it might under some conditions. Under other conditions the self-fulfilling prophecy phenomena might be irrelevant or it might be only partly responsible for the employee’s behavior. However, regardless of what are beliefs are, in business or in personal life, there is some tendency for the self-fulfilling prophecy to at least partly manifest in many situations.

In real business situations and in life in general, a number of factor configurations can be happening simultaneously, such as a self-fulfilling prophecy combined with the domino effect, or a landslide coupled with a vicious cycle. It might be quite difficult to represent all the cause and effect sequences and the related factor configuration on a simple fishbone diagram. This is especially the case if you are faced with a set of difficult problems that resulted from a landslide. One approach, which is probably the best for the most difficult problems, is to create a diagram with the complexity needed to properly delineate the problem. Another approach is to search for the primary or most significant causes, and try to delineate them first. Then try to eliminate the less severe causes. This is similar to the simplification procedure that was already discussed in step five. In addition, dividing complicated problems into smaller and simpler problems can result in success. The reason for this is obvious; it is easier to analyze and solve simpler problems.

Another method that can result in obtaining valuable information, that can lead to creative solutions to problems and goal attainment is experimentation. This can involve formal experimental procedures, involving precise controls and recording of data. However, informal experimentation involving simple, trial and error, can be more practical under most conditions. This can involve trying something to observe the outcome. That is, often, but not always, the best way to determine what will happen if something is done, is to try it and carefully observe the results. However, there are situations where it is not feasible to perform an experiment, because of financial factors, risks, time, facilities, equipment, etc. In such cases it is sometimes possible to evaluate the entity or method in question by creating a simulation model.

Question: what is a simulation model? Hellriegel & Slocum define simulation as (p 174): "A simulation is a representation of a real system. The simulation model usually describes the behavior of the real system (or some aspect of it) in quantitative and/or qualitative terms." Actually simulation models can be divided into four categories, which are computer models, structural models, microcosms, and mental models. These categories are discussed in the following paragraphs.

A computer simulation model is a software representation of a system or subsystem and/or its environment, which is created to behave and respond in a way that is similar to the real entity (or entities). For example, a computer simulation model of a company, its sales force, its customers, its potential customers, and its competitors, might be able to predict the consequences of raising prices. Such a model also might be able to predict the potential reduction in sales, if a major competitor lowers prices. Computer simulation models are also useful in teaching employees how to operate potentially dangerous machines such as construction equipment. These models can involve virtual reality, which is described by Hellriegel & Slocum as follows (p 176):

"A new technology, virtual reality, is a surrogate environment created by communications and computer systems. The term denotes a simulated environment into which a user "enters," moves around, and interacts with objects. Virtual reality fulfills the sensory requirements of human beings for sight, sound, and movement."

With a computer model incorporating virtual reality, it is possible to test the functionality of a machine before the first prototype is built. This can involve placing potential users of the machine into a computer simulated environment with a control panel that is identical to the panel planned for the real machine. With this type of virtual reality testing it is possible to eliminate design errors, such as poor location of control knobs, before the device is built^{^[35]}.

Structural models differ from computer models, with respect to their real material form. That is, structural models are physical entities that are designed to behave in a way that is similar to the real system. For example, to evaluate the functionality of a new airplane design, the engineering team might build a structural model, out of plastic or metal, and test it in a wind tunnel. It is possible to manipulate such models in various ways, including modifying its design, to determine if a better design is possible. It is also possible to determine how a system will behave under different conditions with a structural model.

A microcosm is a small system that behaves and responds in a way that is more or less similar to a much larger system, with respect to one or more factors. For example, it is possible to find relatively small geographical areas in the United States that mimics the buying behavior of the entire country. Such a system can obviously be used for market research. It is possible to find small organizations that are microcosms of giant organizations. It is even possible to find departments in large organizations that are microcosms of the entire organization. In theory, it should be possible to create such models deliberately. However, this might not be practical in most cases, except for certain situations involving experimental research.

The three categories of simulation models discussed above are usually not a practical way to evaluate and solve management or personal problems. The computer models generally must be created by computer programmers for the desired purpose, which can take many months of work. In addition, computer simulations of human behavior, such as organizational behavior or consumer buying habits, are based on statistics and many theoretical assumptions. Such models can provide only rough approximations of reality at best, unless there is a continuous input of corrective data from the real system. Structural models also must be created specifically for an intended purpose, which generally makes them only practical for problems faced by the engineering department. Microcosms are usually not practical unless you are doing statistical evaluations or a scientific study. However, there is one highly practical simulation methodology that is quite practical, for all types of problem solving, which is the mental simulation model.

What is a mental simulation model? It is a simulation of a system created in the mind of an individual. Such models can be composed of sensory data, such as mental imagery, coupled with knowledge and experience of how various entities behave. These models are part of our mental conceptions of reality. They allow us to predict the way people and other systems will change and respond under various conditions. That is, these models give us the ability to make estimates and predictions.

We all use mental simulation models whether we are conscious of it or not. When we are not conscious of our use of mental simulation models, we probably will attribute our predictive abilities to intuition. When people observe an individual successfully using mental simulation models they will probably also call it intuition. The similarity between the two phenomena will become apparent in the following paragraphs.

Most of us have mental models of our neighborhood, and the buildings we live and work in. We usually also have good mental simulation models of the people we know well, such as our best friend, our parents, our husband, our wife, our children. Such models are not the result of pure imagery. They allow us to make estimations, predict behavior, and answer related questions, with varying degrees of accuracy. For example the following questions can be answered, with a degree of accuracy ranging from excellent too poor, by human beings because they have a mental simulation model of the relevant entities: How much time will be required for you to walk from your home to work? How much time will be required to travel by car from the neighborhood you grew up in, to the place where you are now employed? How will your father behave if you drop out of college? How will your wife behave if you quit your job? How will your boss behave if you ask for a raise? What would happen if your company reduced the prices for its product by ten percent? What would happen if it raised its prices by ten percent? What would happen if your company reduced salaries by ten percent? Of course, it is not possible to answer such questions with certainty, because our mental models of reality are not perfect. This is usually the case also with the other models discussed above. That is, with the other simulation methods, including the computer techniques, it is usually not possible to answer most of these questions with certainty either. However, with mental simulations it is easy to make corrections in our mental models with feedback.

We can probably increase our skill and ability to make estimations and predictions, with our mental simulation models by practicing all of the ideas in the following paragraphs, on an ongoing basis.

Develop an awareness of the mental simulation process, and the models that develop within your mind. This should include carefully observing the various components and behaviors of relevant systems, such as people, groups, organizations, the environment, with the goal of creating a useful mental simulation model. This also involves learning about the systems in detail, and developing a good mental image of all its aspects.

Correct your mental models, based on the feedback you receive. This can include making estimates and predictions, even if it is not necessary, and making corrections based on the reality that manifests. This can involve verbalizing your estimates and predictions to yourself, or putting it in writing, and making the needed corrections when you have information from the actual reality.

When you are in a situation where you might benefit from making estimates or predictions do the following eight steps:

1) Carefully visualize all the relevant components of the system you plan to make estimates and/or predictions about. Than think about all the information you have about the system. Ask yourself, do I have all the information I need? What specific information will help me make more accurate estimates and/or predictions? Where can I obtain this information? If necessary and feasible obtain more information.

2) Create relevant questions that relate to the needed estimates or predictions. This is best done in writing. Examples of such questions are as follows: How will Ms. X respond when I tell her about her new work responsibilities? What will happen after the system is modified? What will happen at the meeting? How long will it take Ms. Y to complete the paper work? What will Ms. Y do next? How can I get along better with Ms. Y. What is the best way to communicate with Ms. Y. What will probably happen tomorrow, next week, next month, next year, etc.

3) Then provide multiple answers to each question you created, which ideally should be done in writing. That is, create a number of answers to each question. When you are creating the answers keep in mind that they should be the best estimates or predictions that you can devise.

4) Arrange the answers you created in order of likelihood of correctness. That is, the best answer, should be placed first, the second best second, the third best third, etc. If you have a large number of answers, remove the answers that are unlikely to be correct. For example, if answers were provided for the question: How will Ms. X respond when I tell her about her new work responsibilities? The answers could consist of the following: 1. Ms. X will probably accept the new work responsibilities, but she will be displeased about the change. 2. Ms. X will not like the new responsibilities, but she will accept the new work assignment. 3. Ms. X will dislike the new assignments, and she will refuse to do the assigned work.

5) After you created the list of questions in step four, create a set of plans to deal with each of the possible outcomes. The following examples, using the questions that relate to Ms. X, will clarify this step: 1. Ms. X will probably accept the new work responsibilities, but she will be displeased about the change. If this is the case she can be assigned immediately. 2. Ms. X will not like the new responsibilities, but she will accept the new work assignment. If this is the case she will be temporarily assigned to the new work, until we can find an employee that is qualified and willing to take the new job. 3. Ms. X will dislike the new assignments, and she will refuse to do the assigned work. If this is the case than we will let Ms. X keep her old job, and we will place an ad in the paper for a new employee, to carry out the new work assignment.

6) If you like the predicted outcome(s) you made by answering your questions, skip this step and go directly to step seven. However, if you do not like the predicted outcomes that you obtained in step five, ask yourself: how can I change the outcome to the results I want? What actions can I take to change the predicted outcome to results that are more desirable? Or how can I change my plans to obtain a better predictive outcome? The above example involving Ms. X can be used to illustrate this idea. It is apparent from the three answers that Ms. X will probably be displeased with the new work assignment, even if she accepts the assignment. (1. Ms. X will probably accept the new work responsibilities, but she will be displeased about the change.) This prediction can be change by taking the appropriate action, such as modifying the new work responsibilities according to the personal preference of Ms. X, and/or giving Ms. X an increase in salary, and/or a promotion to a higher job status. After taking corrective action or changing your plans to obtain a better predictive outcome, repeat, steps 3 to 6, or ideally repeat all the steps on the list.

7) Evaluate your answers, which are your estimates and predictions. This is done by evaluating what actually happens in the real situation. If everything turned out as you believed it would, you can do everything according to your plans. If your estimates and/or predictions were partly or totally incorrect, modify your plans accordingly.

8) When you carry out your plans evaluate them for effectiveness, and make any modifications or corrections that are needed to obtain your objective.

Another important component involved with problem solving and goal attainment is our assumptions.^{^[36]} Assumptions can be based directly or indirectly on the mental simulation models the individual has in relation to a specific problem or goal. This suggests the question: what are assumptions? Hellriegel & Slocum define assumptions as: "The underlying thoughts and feelings of one or more individuals that are taken for granted and believed to be true." This is an extremely general, but useful definition. I will also define the term for this book in a highly general way, which is as follows. Assumptions are premises we base our reasoning and actions on, and they can include our theories, beliefs, culturally related convictions, expectations, values, thoughts, feelings and fears.

NOTE (Both of the above definitions include emotional components (feelings), which are not usually considered to be assumptions. The reason I included emotional components in my definition is, these factors are highly relevant in most problem solving situations, except when the problem is based on pure mathematics or symbolic logic. I assume Hellriegel & Slocum included emotional components in their definition for the same reason I did. Incidentally, more conventional definitions of an assumption are: a premise used in reasoning, or a premise used in a logical sequence resulting in a conclusion. However, these conventional definitions are not likely to be very useful when dealing with the complex problems of organizations and individuals, because emotional and cultural components are involved.) END OF NOTE

The assumptions we have can either help us or hurt us, in relation to problem solving and goal attainment. Incorrect or inappropriate assumptions can handicap us in reaching are objectives. We may not even be totally aware of the underlying assumptions we are using, in our efforts to solve a problem or obtain a goal. This raises the question, how can we assess the utility of our assumptions in a particular problem solving situation? The following list of questions can help make us aware of our assumptions. Answer these questions in writing, in relation to the problem or goal you are working on. Promise yourself that you will not show your answers and comments to anyone, because this will allow you to write more honestly and with greater freedom. After you answer these questions in detail, carefully evaluate your answers. Try and evaluate the relative degree of functionality or dysfunctionality of your assumptions, in relation to the problem or goal you are trying to obtain.

· What are your beliefs about this situation? Write down all the beliefs that might be involved in your reasoning or emotional responses, in relation to the problem or goal you are working on.

· What theories or hypotheses do you have that relate to this situation? Write about all the theoretical and hypothetical perspectives that are involved in your reasoning in relation to the objective you are trying to obtain.

· How are your cultural convictions influencing you in this situation? Write about all the cultural components that may be affecting your actions, in relation to obtaining the goal or solving the problem.

· How are your values influencing you in this situation? Write about all the values that may be affecting your actions in relation to the problem or goal you are working on.

· What are your thoughts in this situation? Write down all your thoughts that relate to the problem or goal.

· What are your feelings in regard to the situation you are dealing with? Describe your feelings in writing in relation to the problem or goal you are working on.

· What are your concerns or fears in this situation? Describe your concerns and fears in writing in relation to the objective you are trying to achieve.

Another way of evaluating our assumptions, as well as our plans and conclusions, is with the devil's advocacy technique, or some variation of this method. Hellriegel & Slocum define the devil's advocacy method as "The selection of one person in a decision-making group (the devil's advocate) to critique a preferred plan or strategy." I am defining the term as a methodology that consists of an individual or group that challenges (argues against) assumptions, plans, goals, or anything else that relates to problem solving or goal attainment, for the purpose of stimulating careful evaluation, revaluation, and creative thinking.

The devil's advocate method can help an individual or group to consider all relevant factors, to develop contingencies, and to spot errors. That is, sometimes a plan or decision can look perfect on paper, because major realities were not considered. A skilled individual or group acting as a devil's advocate can make these errors apparent. A good devil's advocate according to Hellriegel & Slocum is as follows:

"The devil's advocate acts like a good trial lawyer, presenting arguments against the proposed position as convincingly as possible. She or he tries to punch holes in the assumptions underlying the plan, draw out the internal inconsistencies in the proposed course of action, and reveal problems that may lead to its failure."

Just like a trial lawyer, the individual, or group, playing the role of the devil's advocate does not necessarily believe in the position that she is advocating. Her goal is to argue her case to the best of her ability, given the facts and circumstances that she is faced with. However, unlike a trial lawyer, a devil's advocate should avoid directly or indirectly verbally attacking other individuals, as she argues her case.

There are some potential disadvantages to the devil's advocacy technique, which might be apparent from the above description. The criticism can be perceived as insulting by some individuals. The critical assessment can result in the rejection of a good plan, because some unrealistic fears or concerns were generated by the devil's advocate. The process can reveal minor weaknesses in a plan, and greatly exaggerate the significance of the deficiencies. This could result in a rejection, rather than a correction, of the entire plan. Thus, I will present an alternative technique, without the above difficulties, in the following paragraph.

You can be your own devil's advocate, and evaluate and criticize your own assumptions, ideas, plans, conclusions, reports or any type of entity you created. This can be done before you submit such material to your boss or to a committee. The technique involves answering the following questions in relation to the assumptions, ideas, plans, conclusions, etc., that you want to evaluate. The method involves four steps, and it is in certain ways similar to the brainstorming technique. However, this method can be performed by one individual or by a group.

NOTE (In the following list, the word plan was used, to simplify the text. Thus, plan can mean in this list all of the following: assumptions, conclusions, design, goals, plans, reports, any type of documentation, or anything that relates to problem solving or goal attainment.)

1) What are all the things that are wrong with your plan? Create a written list of as many deficiencies as possible, in relation to your plan.

2) Carefully evaluate the deficiencies that you wrote about in step one, and than remove the invalid entries from your list. That is, remove the deficiencies that are not relevant or true problems from your list.

3) Rewrite the list you created and place the deficiencies in order of importance. That is, the most significant deficiency should be first, the second most significant deficiency, should be second, etc.

4) For each of the deficiencies in your plan answer the following question: What are all the possible ways that I can correct this deficiency. Then list all the possible ways of making the needed corrections. Select the best way of making the corrections and apply it to your plan. Then evaluate your plan to be sure that you successfully made the needed corrections.

In the above paragraphs many problem solving techniques were discussed, and it should be apparent from these discussions that two of the primary components for complex problem solving and goal attainment are: 1) information, which involves learning, and 2) expert assistance. This discussion will be focused on the latter, because there are a number of difficulties associated with the use of experts. Experts do not always agree. Even experts in the same field will give different advice, different estimates, different forecasts, and different opinions. Expert assistance can be very expensive, especially if the expert has to travel to the worksite to provide assistance. These difficulties can be greatly reduced by the Delphi technique and its variations. This will become apparent in the following paragraphs.

What is the Delphi technique? Hellriegel & Slocum defined it as (p 173):

"A forecasting aid based on a consensus of a panel of experts." Robbins defines Delphi technique as: "A group decision method in which individual members, acting separately, pool their judgments in a systematic and independent fashion." The Delphi technique involves a number of experts, who are given questionnaires and relevant information about a problem or goal, with the aim of achieving a consensus on a specific issue. The questionnaires and information were traditionally transmitted by conventional mail. The technique was originally created by Norman Dalkey and Olaf Helmer at the Rand Corporation, in the early 1950s. Their goal was to collect information from experts, and feed it back to them to form a consensus on the effects of a Soviet nuclear attack on our military defenses. The basic technique, as expressed by Robbins (p 325) is as follows^{^[37]}:

1) "The problem is identified and members are asked to provide potential solutions through a series of carefully designed questionnaires." That is, the problem is defined, a number of experts are selected, their task is explained to them, and they are asked to give their forecasts or estimates, or solutions, to a particular problem as delineated in a series of questionnaires, which were traditionally sent through the mail. However, in modern times, electronic methods might be used to send the questionnaires to the participants.

2) "Each member anonymously and independently completes the first questionnaire." The idea behind the words anonymously and independently is important. The reason for this is human beings in all, or almost all, cultures, subcultures and societies tend to be influenced consciously or unconsciously by individuals with high prestige. If the questionnaires were not filled out anonymously and independently, the expert with the highest prestige might inadvertently influence the other experts.

3) "Results of the first questionnaire are compiled at a central location transcribed, and reproduced." This is essentially a report on the questionnaires. However, it will generally include either the same questions or a modified set of questions to be answered by each expert.

4) "Each member receives a copy of the results." The report compiled in step three is sent to each of the experts. This was traditionally done by mail, but in modern times electronic methods might be used, such as e-mail or fax machines.

5) "After viewing the results, members are again asked for their solutions. The results typically trigger new solutions or cause changes in the original position." The report that was sent to the experts in step four is independently reviewed by each expert. This usually stimulates their thinking, and new or modified forecasts, estimates, or solutions usually develop. That is, the information from each expert modifies the opinions of the other experts, which eventually can result in a consensus.

6) "Steps 4 and 5 are repeated as often as necessary until consensus is reached." As these steps are repeated, generally a consensus is approached. To achieve a true consensus, in a situation where there is much disagreement, steps four and five will have to be repeated a number of times.

According to Harold A. Linstone, writing in Group Planning and Problem-Solving Methods in Engineering Management, edited by Shirley A. Olsen, a typical Delphi study consists of the following: The study has from five to forty experts participating (which is the case in 60 percent of the studies). The typical study is completed within eight months (this is the case in 75 percent of the studies). Most of the studies "used three or fewer questionnaires, "which implies that consensus was achieved in three or less repetitions of steps four and five. "43 Percent of the studies cost under $5000," which appears to be based on prices in the early 1980s. However, it is apparent that the Delphi technique is quite economical. It can cost considerably more than $5000 to temporarily higher one expert to work on a problem.

The Delphi technique was originally created to estimate, such as how many Soviet atomic bombs will damage are defenses, and to make forecasts, such as the future of the steel and ferroalloy industry. However, the technique can be modified, and has been modified, to meet the needs of a particular study. It is possible to obtain expert information and solutions to almost any type of problem with the Delphi technique, if you are willing to make the appropriate modifications in the method. It does not even have to be used with experts, if you are trying to obtain a consensus of a specific group or category of people, such as your employees, your managers, your customers, etc. The primary disadvantage of the Delphi technique, is the time it takes to send questionnaires to the participants, which was traditionally done by mail. In modern times, fax, e-mail, and computer networks can be used. With the proper computer network a consensus can be reached in a fraction of the time required for the traditional Delphi method.

The Delphi technique is an excellent method when expert opinions are needed and experimentation cannot be used to obtain the required information. For example, to answer questions about the future, you must use intuition and opinion. However, if you are dealing with an issue that can be tested experimentally, you will probably obtain better results with the following:

1) Define the problem or goal you are working on.

2) Collect the information that relates to your problem. This can involve looking up information from the library, consulting experts, observing relevant systems in operation, and setting up general experiments to obtain data.

3) Formulate a hypothesis that can be tested experimentally.

4) Set up the experiment to determine if the hypothesis is true or false.

Inductive reasoning is a major component of many problem solving methodologies. It involves reasoning from a particular case to the general case. It is a primary component of scientific observation and experimentation, where information is obtained on a sample of a specific type of entity, and is then generalized to all such entities. For example, an observer evaluates a sample of flying animals, (the specific) such as bees, pigeons, and bats, and than concludes that all animals that fly have wings (the general).

The potential difficulties with inductive reasoning include the following: the observed sample is too small, the sample is not representative of the general category under study, or there are unknown exceptions in the general category. These potential difficulties can result in developing completely irrational or incorrect beliefs, hypothesis and theories. The difficulties associated with inductive reasoning are likely to manifest in human behavior studies, including studies on management and organizational behavior. The reason for this is each person is a unique entity, with her own genetic makeup, personality, culture and subculture. In addition, people behave according to environmental conditions, and what they believe about the specific circumstances. Thus, it can be difficult, or impossible, to generalize accurately from a small experimental sample of human beings, to all humans throughout the world.

Deductive reasoning is more or less the opposite of the above. It involves reasoning from a general principle to a specific case. It starts with a basic assumption, such as: all animals that fly have wings. If we use this premise in a hypothetical example, such as Ms. X found a new animal that can fly. The logical conclusion, if the premise is correct, is Ms. X found a new animal that has wings.

The potential difficulties with deductive reasoning include incorrect assumptions and incorrect application of the method. As implied in the earlier discussion, assumptions can be quite incorrect and even totally irrational. If such assumptions are used in the deductive reasoning process, incorrect conclusions will result. This can occasionally happen by inadvertently modifying a correct assumption. For example, using the above assumption: All animals that fly have wings, can result in incorrectly concluding that all animals with wings fly. This change in wording results in a totally different assumption, which happens to be incorrect. Applying this incorrect assumption to ostriches will result in the erroneous conclusion that the giant birds fly.

The Different Categories of Problems

The problems that organizations and people face in their personal lives can be divided into several categories. The different categories suggest different problem solving methodologies. This is illustrated in the following list, which summarizes some of the ideas presented in this chapter, and will serve as the chapter conclusion:

· problems that involve decision making The following questions illustrate examples of this type of problem: Which applicants should we hire? Which machines should we purchase? Some decision making involves a simple yes or no, such as the following: Should we sell the new product line offered by company X? Should I by the newest Ford automobile? Experimentation is a good method of dealing with this type of problem. For example, in making a decision involving the hiring of job applicants, the solution can be to higher all the qualified applicants temporarily, and evaluate their job performance in the specific situation. Then permanently higher the individual that performs best. If we use the car as an example, the solution can involve renting the specific model and test driving it for a few days, to decide if you should purchase it. Another way of dealing with decision making problems is with some type of simulation model, which is certainly not as precise as an actual experimental trial. This can involve testing your choices with a simulation, such as evaluating your decision with a mental simulation of the relevant entity. For example, if a manager needs to choose an assistant manager from the employees that work under her, she can use a mental simulation model, if she knows the employees and their work performance quite well. This would involve the manager visualizing the behavior patterns and work performance of each of the employees. Than the manager would visualize each of the employees working as an assistant manager, and choosing the individual that appears to be the best based on her mental simulations.

· problems that are technical in nature These problems require technical knowledge to solve. If you do not have that knowledge, you simply need one or more individuals with appropriate training to help you solve the problem. In some cases, the untrained individual can solve technical problems herself if she is willing to invest the time needed to study the relevant information. Such study can be quite difficult and time consuming.

· situations that are the result of emotional or mental blocks that inhibit the actions or methods needed to obtain a solution or goal That is, sometimes there are highly effective and apparent methods to obtain a goal or solve a problem, but the individual(s) involved do not recognize or consider the obvious. The obvious solutions might be apparent to other people, but they are not apparent to the individuals facing the problem. If an outsider suggests the obvious solution or method to obtain a goal, the individual(s) involved with the problem, might provide an irrational answer, such as that is not the way we do things around here, I can't do that, I do not believe that will work for us, I will try that when we have time, we need a practical solution, etc. These types of emotional blocks are common in organizations and in the personal lives of individuals. They can be the result of one or more of the following: established habits that interfere with the best course of action, cultural or social factors that interfere with goal attainment, groupthink, irrational fears, unjustified or incorrect assumptions, lack of experience with the obvious methods and solutions, an over emphasis on highly sophisticated methods that results in rejecting simpler and more effective methods, etc. Difficulties of this nature can sometimes be solved by determining what the nature of the mental block consists of. That is, the individuals faced with the mental block should answer questions such as: Why can't we use the obvious method or solution? (The underlined words are to be replaced in these questions with the specific method or solution.) What would happen if we used the obvious methods or solutions? What would the consequences be if we used the obvious methods or solutions, and are there any ways of circumventing the undesirable consequences? Are the undesirable consequences likely to manifest from the obvious methods or solutions? Are there really any potential undesirable consequences associated with the obvious methods or solutions? Why can't we try a short term experimental evaluation with the obvious methods or solutions?

§ Sometimes there are truly legitimate reasons for not using the obvious methods and solutions. Under other conditions the individual(s) involved with the problem never seriously considered the obvious. In such cases, brainstorming, or other types of creative thinking, can help, especially if people that are not involved with the problem participate. The question to answer in the brainstorming process is what are all the possible methods that can help with this goal? What are all the possible solutions to this problem? What are all the possible ways that most organizations or individuals would solve this problem? Each idea that is generated should be evaluated at a later point in time, by answering the following questions: What would happen if we used this idea to solve our problem or obtain our goal. Are there really any significant risks involved with applying this idea? If there are, can the risks or adverse consequences be circumvented?

· problems that have no apparent solutions These are the most challenging problems to deal with. To solve these problems an elaborate problem solving methodology will probably work best, such as the twelve step method that was discussed earlier in this chapter. Such problems can sometimes be solved by: 1) defining and analyzing the problem, with the aim of dividing the problem into simpler problems, which might be solved separately; 2) prolonged and detailed study of the problem; 3) experimentation; 4) contacting experts for assistance; 5) the application of creativity techniques; 6) creating detailed plans that delineate at least one solution; 7) devising methods of obtaining resources for the effort, because solving problems of this nature can sometimes be extremely expensive This can sometimes be done by writing a report and submitting it to upper management of your company, another organization, or a government agency. 8) applying the plans you created and testing the solutions suggested by the plans. With difficult problems it may be necessary to test many plans and solutions before the problem is totally solved. This means that the above steps would probably have to be repeated many times.

· mathematical and logical problems Mathematical and logical problems can be relatively easy to solve. These problems are based on pure logic, and generally no equipment, materials or financial resources are required to obtain a solution. The solutions of mathematical and logical problems can usually be easily tested on paper or with a computer. If you have no knowledge in this area, you can easily obtain assistance from an expert, who can solve the problem for you. However, mathematical and logical problems are often a part of more challenging problems that involve people, equipment, and financial resources.

Chapter 10: Communications And Management And Related Ideas

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Introduction, Definitions, and Discussion

What do managers do? The theoretical answer is, they plan, organize, lead and control, and the real answer is they communicate. That is, managers spend much of their time talking, listening, writing and reading, in their efforts to plan, organize, lead and control. They give orders to subordinates, and they take orders from their superiors, they might interview job candidates, they listen to employees discussing problems, they read and write memoranda, letters and reports. These tasks are part of a complex organizational communication process. In fact, the entire organization can be thought of as a product of communications. That is, the communication is the process that links each individual that is involved directly or indirectly with the organization, such as stockholders, managers, experts, technicians, other employees, suppliers, and customers. If the communication process within an organization was turned off completely, it would eventually cease to exist.

The above suggests that the communication process is extremely important for managers and organizations, but it does not explain or define the concept of communication. Hellriegel & Slocum define this term as (p 482): "The transfer of information and understanding from one person to another through meaningful symbols." Robbins defines communication as (p G-1): "The transference and understanding of meaning." I am defining and explaining the concept in more detail in the following paragraph. Communication is the process of transmitting, receiving and comprehending information. The word transmitting implies a source of the information, which can be any system that is capable of sending information. The word system means here a person, a group, an organization, or even an animal or machine, such as a computer. The word receiving, implies one or more systems, the listener(s) or the audience, that receives the information. The word comprehending means one or more of the following: the information is understood by the listeners, or the system responded to the data in a desirable way or in a way that would suggest understanding. The word information is used in an extremely general way, and it means one or more of the following: data, emotional components, messages, ideas, instructions, orders, thoughts, etc.

Communication can also be defined as: the process of encoding information, and transmitting it to a receiver that can decode it. Encoding means putting data, emotional components, messages, ideas, instructions, into a code, such as spoken or written language. The words receiver that can decode it mean one or more: individuals, groups, organizations, machines, animals, etc., that can interpret or comprehend the information that was transmitted to it. The interpretation or comprehension process, as the terms are used here, means decoding of the information. The decoding is never perfect, and when it fails, communications in any meaningful sense of the term, did not take place.

NOTE (The definition in the above paragraph does not apply to nonverbal communication, because nonverbal cues are usually not encoded or even deliberately produced in most cases. It is usually, but not always, a secondary response of the muscles and limbs in relation to the verbal message and the emotional components related to the communications situation. Of course, people sometimes deliberately control their facial expression, such as smiling, while they are communicating, but this is not really encoding of information. Nonverbal communication does not really have to be decoded either, but it does have to be interpreted. Decoding is in fact, a special type of interpreting based on translating the linguistic code into thoughts or mental data. However, there is no linguistic code involved with nonverbal communication.) END OF NOTE

The communication process involves more than spoken and written language. It can involve seeing, hearing, touching and even smelling. These components are involved in the nonverbal communications process. Nonverbal communication, that accompanies spoken language, includes, body movements, facial expressions, pauses in the flow of speech, stammering, rate of speaking, tone of voice. Style of dress, and perfumes and other odors from the body can also convey a nonverbal message that can modify the meaning or significance of spoken language.

In written language, nonverbal communication includes: punctuation, graphics, the color of the ink, the style of font, the size of the letters, the type and quality of the stationery used to write on, and how the message is sent, such as by private messenger, certified mail, first class mail, fax, e-mail, etc.

Nonverbal communication does not generally carry any precise information by itself, but it can determine how a verbal message is to be interpreted. For example, the phrase I want to kill you, can mean all of the following:

· It can mean a friendly compliment, such as when a friend smiles and pats you on the back when you won him in a competitive game.

· It can be a complaint, such as when a superior who is annoyed with your behavior, expresses an angry facial expression, which can sometimes be coupled with a pointing finger.

· It can truly be a threat to your life, such as being threatened by one or more strangers with angry expressions on their faces and weapons in their hands.

From the above it is apparent that the context and the individuals involved also determine the meaning of a message. If you are at work or at home and your boss or father says he wants to kill you, you know your life is really not being threatened. However, if you find yourself in the middle of a violent riot, and you are approach by a stranger carrying a baseball bat, the same words suggest a true threat to your life. Thus, primary considerations in the communication process are the verbal message, the nonverbal cues, the source of the message, and the context.

When a verbal message is transmitted, it must be put in a linguistic form that can be understood by the audience.^{^[38]} It ideally should be accompanied by nonverbal cues that help the listener properly interpret the message. When receiving a verbal message you must attempt to interpret its intended meaning, which can be done with the aid of the nonverbal cues. However, a truly skilled listener, will reflect their interpretation back to the sender to confirm the meaning of the message. For example, if your boss tells you to arrive early next Monday, you can check the meaning of his statement by saying: I will be here at 8:30 a.m. on Monday December 30; is that okay? Giving this type of feedback to the communicator, can reassure him, and it can avoid misunderstandings and confusion. In the above example, the boss could have simply been complaining about the repeated lateness of the employee, and what was meant by early, could have been a request by the boss to arrive on time, at 9:00 a.m.

Another Description of the Communication Process

There are many other ways, besides the presentation delineated in the above paragraphs, of describing the communications process. Hellriegel & Slocum presented the communications process as having six primary components, which are: "1. sender (encoder), 2. receiver (decoder), 3. message, 4. channels, 5. feedback, and 6. perception." Robbins presented a similar model of the communications process, which consists of the following seven components: "(1) the communication source, (2) encoding, (3) the message, (4) the channel, (5) decoding, (6) the receiver, and (7) feedback." The following discussion is primarily based on both of these models, but the numbering and words in quotation marks are from Hellriegel & Slocum^{^[39]}.

1) "sender (encoder)" The sender is the individual that is attempting to transmit a message. The sender tries to put the information, into a message that is worded in a way that will be understood by the receiver. This is called encoding. In the model Robbins presented, the source or sender was numbered 1 and the encoding process was number 2. In the Hellriegel & Slocum model these to components were combined into one step. However, if the source of a message is considered separately, the following additional insights become apparent.^{^[40]}

The source of a message is of primary importance to most people. People determine the relative significance of a message based on the prestige and power of the source. For example, if an individual with extremely low prestige, such as a derelict asks for directions, he might be ignored by most people. However, a similar request made by a person with average prestige would obtain an immediate and polite response in most cases. An individual with above average prestige would most likely get an even better response. This general idea can be applied to the communications that take place in organizations. The individual with relatively high prestige will get better responses from his communication efforts, than an individual with lower prestige. Upper management might ignore the low prestige communicator, and give great weight to the communications efforts of the high prestige individual. As a result, a high prestige individual is likely to get his message across to the people who have power in the organization. The high prestige communicator is likely to get his project accepted. The low prestige communicator might not even succeed in having the documentation he submits read. This suggests a problem for people who do not have exceptionally high prestige, and it raises the question: How can you increase the prestige of your statements, especially written reports requesting organizational resources for your job related projects? The answer is to gain the support of individuals that have relatively high prestige in the organization, in relation to your communication efforts. This can be done relatively easy with written documentation, such as reports requesting special or additional resources for a major job-related project. In such a case you simply need support letters for your project, from the high prestige individuals. Having high prestige individuals supporting your oral communication efforts at a meeting or in private discussions with upper management can also be effective.

From the perspective of the listener, a high prestige person might have power over us, or we might believe that he has more knowledge than we do. For example, if our boss gives us an order we will most likely give it more attention than if a friend gave us the same order. Thus, the source of the communication is a primary consideration, and it is as important as the encoding process itself.

Hellriegel & Slocum offered the following five step recommendation for good encoding:

a) "Relevancy” This involves making the message relevant to the individual(s) that will receive the message. This can be done by the careful use of symbols and gesture. It is especially important to avoid phrasing that inadvertently makes your message irrelevant, such as using wording that is offensive to your listener(s). You can also make a message relevant by adding something interesting or rewarding to it. For example, if you tell your secretary that there is a report that must be typed and completed today; the message is certainly not interesting from his perspective. In fact, the message would probably be quite burdensome. However, if you add that the only work he has today is typing the report, and he can leave early after the report is typed, he will probably be quite interested in your message and probably inclined to complete the report before the morning is over.

b) "Simplicity" Making the message as simple as possible is a recommendation that is made by most sources on communication and writing. This can sometimes be achieved by: using simple words, eliminating unnecessary words, eliminating unnecessary information, and dividing complicated messages into several simpler messages. However, a common problem associated with simplicity, involves oversimplification, which can distort the message, leave out essential information, and/or make the entire message incomprehensible. This type of oversimplification can be seen in certain technical writing, where there is an effort to reduce the number of words, by not defining terms and by using an inadequate number of words to describe and explain. Thus, text should be simplified when possible, but the oversimplification that leads to inaccurate or incomprehensible text should be avoided at all cost.

c) "Organization" Organizing the message so it is broken up into a series of points that can be easily understood. The points should be arranged in an order that would appear logical to the listener or reader. Ideally, each point should make the listener or reader infer the basic idea that will follow. Of course, this cannot always be achieved.

d) "Repetition" People usually do not like repetition in spoken or written language. Unnecessary repetition should be avoided. However, repetition is often necessary, especially in spoken language. Repetition can be essential if you are trying to convey new information, such as in an instructional effort involving either written or spoken language. Hellriegel & Slocum suggest: "Restate key points of the message at least twice. Repetition is particularly important in spoken communication, because words may not be clearly heard or fully understood the first time." To avoid sounding repetitious when repeating the message you can: convey it with different words, repeat the message at different points in time, have two or more individuals repeat the message for you, transmit the message in writing, and follow up with a telephone call or personal visit to discuss the message. Another alternative is to coaxe the listener to explain what he heard, which will facilitate memory and make any needed corrections apparent.

e) "Focus" Focus your words, whether spoken or written, on the key points of your message. Make the message clear and avoid unneeded or confusing detail.

2) "receiver (decoder)" The receiver is any number of individuals or a group who are receiving the message. That is, the receiver is one or more listeners. A good listener tries to interpret the message sent by the encoder, in the way he believes the encoder intended the interpretation to be. A listener also might interpret the message from other perspectives, such as psychological, but the first and primary interpretation should always be that intended by the sender. For example, an employee might be told by his boss, in a very angry tone of voice, to complete a number of tasks immediately. If the employee is a good listener, his first objective would be to clarify the communication and determine precisely what the tasks are. That is, if he is a good listener, he will focus on decoding the message in the manner intended by the boss. He might also inwardly interpret the boss's message and very angry tone as a form of insanity, but this additional interpretation is independent of the primary communication process. A skilled listener will understand and not confuse the difference between the decoding process and his assessment of the communicator.

3) "message" When you send your message there are two parts to it, which are the verbal and nonverbal components. Under ideal conditions your nonverbal cues will reinforce your verbal message. Under certain undesirable conditions your nonverbal cues might distract from your message. This should be taken into consideration, when deciding if you should communicate by written correspondence, telephone, or by a face-to-face discussion. It is possible to eliminate undesirable nonverbal cues with a written correspondence. Communication by telephone allows partial control and elimination of undesirable nonverbal facial expressions. Face-to-face communications offers little control over the nonverbal communications process. The nonverbal components can reinforce or distract from your verbal message, but the quality of your verbal message is extremely important.

If you are presenting your message in a face-to-face discussion or by telephone, and it is important, it might be advisable to rehearse your message before you deliver it. This is especially the case if you are communicating with a superior who is extremely busy. The rehearsal can be done in your imagination, or with the use of an individual who plays the role of your listener.

4) "channels” In an organization there are a number of channels of communication. Some of these channels are formal and others are informal. Formal channels are officially established ways of communicating. Examples follow: An organization might schedule formal meetings for managers to discuss the job related problems they are dealing with. Employees that want to have a private discussion with their manager might have to make an appointment during working hours. Informal channels are unofficial ways of communicating. Informal channels can involve unofficial and personal social meetings inside or outside of the organization. Examples are two managers meeting on Saturday to have a game of golf, while they discuss problems of the organization. Another example is an employee that has a friendly conversation about a job related problem with a manager in the elevator or hallway.

An important communication channel in organizations is often the grapevine, which is an informal communication system. The grapevine is the result of the natural tendency of people to socialize and share information with people they know or are interested in getting to know. Thus, information will spread through a grapevine in a more or less random or unpredictable way. As the information spreads through this informal communication channel it might be distorted, as it passes from one person to another. This can result in a totally distorted message or the development of a rumor.

The communications channels in an organization can also be divided into three basic categories based on the relative status of the communicators, which are downward, upward, and horizontal. Downward channels of communication involve a superior sending, spoken or written, messages to a subordinate. Upward channels involve a subordinate communicating with a superior. Horizontal channels involve individuals of equal status communicating with each other, such as two assembly line workers having a work related discussion, or to first line managers involved in a formal meeting.

A truly skilled communicator might create his own channels of communication, within an organization. This can involve an evaluation of the individuals that the communicator needs to communicate with. Then, form official, semi-official, and unofficial social relationships with the relevant individuals. After the above is completed, the communicator develops and maintains the channels by using them. The ongoing use of a communications channel can establish an understanding and the related behavior patterns in the relevant individuals in regard to receiving and transmitting messages.

5) "feedback" Hellriegel & Slocum define feedback as (p 492): "The receiver's response to the sender's message." Robbins defines the closely related concept of feedback loop as (p 379): "The final link in the communication process; puts the message back into the system as a check against misunderstandings." Feedback is the response of the listener(s), or reader(s), to the information that was transmitted in the communications process. The feedback that is obtained usually consists of one or more of the following: a spoken statement; nonverbal cues; a written response; an intentional behavioral response, such as carrying out an order that was issued in the communication process.

Feedback, as implied in Robbins definition, is a method of checking to determine if the message was successfully transmitted, decoded and comprehended by the listener(s) or reader(s). Feedback is also useful to determine if there are any adverse responses or inappropriate interpretations of the message that was transmitted. Under ideal conditions the feedback tells the communicator precisely what, if any, corrections are needed. Under less than ideal conditions, the feedback might be inadequate or even nonexistent. If you are the communicator, you can elicit feedback by asking appropriate questions and listening to the response, without commenting until the feedback process has been completed. For example, you can ask questions similar to the following: How do you feel about what I said? Did you understand what I said? Do you have any comments or suggestions?

If you are the listener, you can give feedback to guide the individual that is sending the message. Hellriegel & Slocum suggest that feedback should be: "helpful," "descriptive rather than evaluative," specific rather than general," "be well timed," and "it should not overwhelm." Your feedback can be in the form of nonjudgmental questions or comments. Questions are especially useful in clarifying confusing sections of the message or clarifying the intentions of the speaker or writer.

6) "perception" Hellriegel & Slocum define perception as: "The meaning ascribed to a message by a sender or receiver." The problem that is inevitable in many situations is the meaning intended by the sender is not the same as the meaning perceived by the receiver. That is, the perception of the speaker, or writer, and the listener(s), or the reader(s) can be very different, with respect to the meaning of the words comprising the message. The speaker, or writer, can have one idea in mind when he creates his message, and the listener(s) can place an entirely different meaning on the same words, as a result of misinterpretation. The differences between the perceptions of the sender and receiver can be the result of experiences that took place many years earlier, differences in knowledge, differences in culture or subculture, differences in language skills, differences in emotional needs, etc.

In general, it is not likely that anyone will have identical perceptions about a message. When communicating with one individual, this potential difficulty can be eliminated with feedback and appropriate corrections. However, when dealing with a group of people, or even worse a large audience, this problem cannot always be totally avoided or resolved. You might be able to obtain some general feedback or even some specific feedback from a few individuals in a group or large audience.

Asking yourself the following questions can help avoid problems associated with perceptual differences between yourself and a single listener, a group, or a large audience. That is, the following questions can alert you to potential difficulties, which will allow you to correct your words in advance: Can you delineate all the ways that this sentence, paragraph, or message might be misunderstood? How can I word my message in a way that will avoid misunderstanding? Do the people I am trying to communicate with have a culture and subculture similar to myself, or are they from a different background? How does my audience perceive the subject I am trying to discuss? Do they perceive this subject similar to myself, or do they perceive it in a totally different way?

Another technique of avoiding problems that result from perceptual differences is to explain your message in adequate detail. Delineating precisely what your message means can be quite helpful in preventing this type of problem. Also explaining what your message does not mean can help avoid communications problems associated with differences in perception. When writing text, adding one or more sentences similar to the following, can help avoid misinterpretation: This should not be confused with ---- ---- ---- ---- ----- ----- ----.

The Communication Process and Persuasion

Managers, and most human beings, are often faced with communication tasks that involve persuasion. That is, it is often necessary to convince another human being or an entire group to accept ideas, goals, desires, requests, proposals, etc. This necessity suggests the question: What is the best way to persuade an individual or group? There is no single answer to this question, because human beings, their groups, and our persuasive efforts are all unique entities. A method that works fine in one situation might not work in another. However, there are basic principles of communication and persuasion that are likely to work in the majority of situations in our society. Some of these methods and related principles were already discussed in the preceding paragraphs.

When the situation is simple, such as when you have the power and authority, and what you are requesting in relation to your persuasive effort is routine, the best approach usually is to make your statement in a polite, direct and honest way to the relevant individual(s). Then, evaluate the response you obtain from the individual(s), and provide additional statements if necessary to obtain your objective. This is essentially common sense.

The above is not much of a problem. It is a simple persuasive task. This suggests the question: what do you do when you are faced with a difficult persuasive task, in relation to a major request or proposal? (I am using the words request and proposal as synonyms in the remainder of this discussion.) A general example is when you our trying to convince an individual or a group that has more power, authority and prestige than you have, to grant your request. A specific example is a lower level manager trying to convince the CEO and board of directors to fund his plans to create a new invention, and market it under the company name. A less challenging example is a middle manager requesting additional funding for his department. Another general example is to obtain a research grant from a government agency, your school, or a private organization. Communication tasks in this category are highly challenging, and usually require detailed written explanations in the form of reports and other documentation, which may be coupled with many discussions. This type of communication/persuasion process can involve many steps, such as the following twenty point method:

1) Define your goal(s) in relation to your communication and persuasive effort. This step is to clarify your objective(s) and it does not necessarily involve communication with others. For example, you might decide that you want to increase the productivity of the engineering department, which you manage, by means of the latest computer technology.

2) Based on your goal(s) delineate your proposal. This can involve writing out a brief tentative statement of what you want to ask for to obtain your goal(s). Continuing, with the above example, your proposal can involve: asking for new computers for the department you are managing.

3) Determine the best source(s) to send your proposal to. This also involves choosing the best channels of communication for your request and the specific individuals that you must contact. You can sometimes use a number of channels simultaneously, such as the official channels and unofficial social channels. For example, you might decide that your request for new computers should go to all the members on the board of directors, including the CEO of the company, in terms of an official report. You might also contact the individuals on the board in the unofficial social environment and discuss the need for new computers.

The above leads to the question: where do you obtain the best information for this step? You might be able to obtain this information, by asking people in your work environment, making a series of telephone calls to knowledgeable individuals, and/or contacting various agencies or departments. This information might even be available in official documents in some cases. This is especially the case, if you are dealing with government agencies or very large organizations. Trial and error can also lead to the information you need.

4) Submit your proposal at an appropriate point in time. This raises the question: what is the appropriate point in time to submit your request? There is no simple answer to this question. However, if you know what is happening in your organization, you might know when to submit a proposal. For example, it might be inappropriate to request a mainframe computer when the organization is facing a severe financial crisis.

5) Start your document or conversation by politely stating one or more of the following (which ever applies) your purpose, the need, your request, your conclusion. Starting with the conclusion, or even your request or purpose, might sound backwoods to some readers, but it often is the most efficient way to communicate, because top managers and other officials are often to busy to follow the logic that leads to the concluding statement. In situations involving technology or engineering, top managers and other officials might not have the technical background to even understand the logic that leads to your conclusion. Thus, it is usually best that your listener or reader is made aware of the primary ideas in the beginning of the communications process. For example, state that: I am trying to obtain new computers for the engineering department, because it will increase productivity by at least 25 percent.

6) Explain why your request will benefit the company, and/or why your request is required by rules and regulations. For example: the computers that I am trying to obtain will increase productivity by more than 25 percent. This will result in a considerable saving for the company, because we will not have to hire additional personnel. Another example is: I am asking that the board provide immediate funding for the purchase of safety glasses for all the personnel working in the chemistry department. The company is required by law to provide appropriate safety equipment. The law and related legal requirements, or formal rules, can sometimes serve to pressure higher management or officials to support a request.

7) If you are communicating in writing, and there is a chance that all of your documentation might not be read, you should include an introductory summary as part of the opening statement. This can be two or three sentences for a short document or an entire page for a long report. For example: I strongly recommend that the board allocate funding for the purchase of new computers for the engineering department, because it will improve efficiency by more than 25 percent. This and related details are explained in the following paragraphs.

8) Do not be overly concerned with repetition in your documents and oral communication efforts. Repetition is likely to result when you create an introduction that summarizes your document. Most people were taught to avoid repetition, but it is often necessary in the learning and persuasion processes. That is, repeating important points and complicated information can be essential in obtaining your request. However, you should remove unnecessary repetition of nonessential information from your written proposals. Essential repetition of ideas and information should be written so it does not sound repetitious, if possible. This can be done by rewording the material that you repeat. In addition, the repetition of important points and information can be achieved by resubmitting the relevant information in different forms, such as letters, reports, formal discussions, informal conversations, which can be done over a period of time.

9) Do not be concerned about writing long documents and engaging in lengthy discussions supporting your proposal. Most of us were taught to write and even speak as briefly as possible. This is generally good advice for simple and routine situations. However, complicated requests, that involve a considerable financial investment, require detailed explanations, which can involve reports with many pages, and long discussions. If you attempt to make such a request with a short letter, you will probably get a quick refusal in most cases, unless you own the company. However, your introductory summaries should be brief, perhaps similar to a brief letter, but it should contain the essential information. The remainder of your document should contain all the details and reasoning, supporting your introductory summary.

The above does not mean that brief letters cannot be used in the persuasion process. A number of short letters, sent over a period of time, can serve as reminders, provide additional information, clarify confusing points, serve a general persuasive function, etc. Of course a number of brief letters cannot take the place of detailed documentation, but they can reinforce the impact of a detailed report.

10) Support your opening statement(s) and request with one or more of the following: logical reasoning, explanations, experimental results, expert opinion, documentation from books or periodicals, etc. Under some conditions even emotional persuasion can be used to support your opening statements and request, but this usually cannot be used without additional logical support. In general, honest logical explanations are likely to be the most effective support for your statements and request. For example: the computers I am requesting for the engineering department will increase productivity by more than 25 percent, because it will allow the engineers to use computer aided design programs. This will eliminate the need to hire five additional engineers, which will save the company over $200,000 a year. We need ten computers and appropriate software, which will cost only $40,000.

11) Avoid unsupported requests or statements. For example, simply indicating that you need or want something is usually not adequate, unless you are in a power position, such as the boss, a manager talking to a subordinate, or if you are a paying customer. Another general example of an unsupported statement is stating your beliefs, without adding supporting evidence or explanations. A specific example of an unsupported statement is: I want ten new computers for the engineering department.

12) Avoid phrases that can be misunderstood or words that might erroneously suggest that you are contradicting your earlier statements. Some listeners and readers will focus on such phrases, and develop unfavorable conclusions in regard to your communications objective. In addition, such phrases can be taken out of context, and you can be inadvertently or intentionally quoted in such a way that you appear to be against the very ideas you are supporting.

13) Do not be vague. Make your statements precise, and you should not leave any doubt about what you are saying and supporting. If you truly have doubts, you should obtain the information you need to eliminate your uncertainty, before you start the communication and persuasion processes.

14) Use words, phrases, reasoning, and arguments that will be understood and accepted by your listener or reader. The best way to achieve this is to learn about your listener or reader. If this is not feasible, you can often make reasonably good assessments by considering the role, type and quantity of education of the relevant individual(s).

15) Try and obtain prestigious supporters for your proposal. Individuals who have power within the organization, or knowledgeable individuals with high status, especially experts, can be of great help if they support your explanations, the information you are providing, and your request. Such support can be in the form of a written statement and/or in terms of one or more discussions with the officials you are trying to persuade. Letters from experts supporting your written request, your report, can be especially useful.

16) An exceptionally complicated proposal or a request that is not likely to win a quick acceptance should be submitted over an extended period of time. For example, if you ask the CEO to spend $40,000 on new computers for the engineering department, there is a high probability that he will refuse the request. However, if you gradually supply the information he needs to make a proper decision over a period of time, you have a much better chance of obtaining your goal. The basic idea is it takes human beings time to learn, and making a major decision, such as the purchase of $40,000 of computer equipment, requires the learning process. That is, when you are persuading you are teaching, which takes time. This is especially the case if you are trying to persuade a busy executive or official.

17) The best way to submit highly complex proposals is in the form of a series of memoranda, letters and reports, followed up by discussions. Sending letters or reports without a follow-up discussion can result in wasted effort. The busy executive(s) or official(s) might neglect to read the documentation you submitted. Even if they read your document, they might not totally understand it, which can also be remedied by a discussion on the phone or in person. You can put a statement in your documents, requesting a telephone call after the material was read. If you do not get a telephone call in one week after you submitted your document, you should call the appropriate individual(s) to discuss the material you submitted, and to determine if they had time to read it. If they did not read it, additional follow-up telephone calls are necessary until they read the material.

18) If you are getting negative responses, or refusals, it can sometimes be the result of inadequate information. Negative responses can also sometimes result from lack of comprehension of the material you submitted, which can happen if it was not completely read. The best solution usually is to try to determine what additional information you can provide to obtain a positive response.

19) Avoid hostile arguments, but do not be afraid to disagree in a polite and firm way. Disagreeing is not likely to invoke significant hostility, if you are polite and you took the time to understand the opposing opinion. You should not criticize the individual(s) or group, that you are trying to convince, but you can politely criticize any statements that are against your proposed request. This can be done in writing, if necessary, because it is easy to be polite in a document. Of course, if you are dealing with your employer, you must be especially cautious about criticizing or pushing your arguments. In other situations, it is not necessary to be overly cautious, but it is necessary to be kind, friendly, patient, understanding, and assertive. This applies even, if the people you are trying to persuade totally disagree with you and treat you in a hostile manner. Keep in mind that over time, the hostility might diminish and they might support your request, if you provide appropriate persuasive information.

20) If you obtain a formal refusal in relation to your proposal, answer the following questions. What are all the possible factors that led to this refusal? Are there any modifications that I can make in my request, documentation, or communication style to obtain an acceptance? After answering these questions, consider starting the process over again from step one in an effort to obtain an acceptance for your proposal.

The Concluding Words: The Building Blocks Of An Organization And The Communication Process

Most modern industrial organizations are made up of people with different roles, abilities and skills, including stockholders, coupled with sources of raw materials and information, equipment, and land and buildings, all of which are aimed at producing one or more products or services that will interest the consumers. The above are the essential building blocks of most modern industrial organizations. Whatever the building blocks of an organization happen to be, the glue that holds the blocks together is the communication process, especially in relation to the transmission of: product design, instructions, organizational culture, rules, and advertising of products and/or services. This complex communications process, the glue, travels through many channels. If there are any significant weaknesses in this complex communications process there is a significant possibility that the organization will run into serious problems. For example, if the communication channel between the organization and consumers are inadequate, the company might inadvertently produce a product that is not needed or wanted. Another example, can be a company that creates a product that is potentially quite useful, but fails to communicate the utility of the product to the consumers. In general, a company with strong and highly effective communication channels, especially between the organization and consumers, is probably more likely to prosper.

In the personal life of the individual, the communication process also plays a vital role. Any weaknesses, in any of the communication skills are likely to severely limit the individual’s life chances in all areas. Individuals with strong communication skills are probably much more likely to succeed than the average individual.

From the above paragraphs, it is probably apparent that many problems can manifest in relation to the communications process. The following list of questions can be used to avoid or solve communications problems. Most of the following questions apply to both written and spoken language:

· What are your communication goal(s)? Whom do you want to communicate with? Is it one individual? Do you know the individual you want to communicate with? Do you want to communicate with a group? That is, delineate your communication objective, in terms of your audience and what you want to convey.

· Would it be more practical to divide your communication goal into several smaller messages?

· What would be the ideal nonverbal cues accompanying your message? Can you produce these cues? Is there a risk of inadvertently producing undesirable nonverbal cues when you send your message? To answer this question, ask yourself how do I feel about my message? How do I feel about the individual(s) that I am trying to communicate with? How do I feel about myself in relation to this communications task? If you think you might produce dysfunctional nonverbal cues, would you be better off sending your message by written correspondence? Would you be better off conveying your message by telephone?

· Did you make your message as brief as possible? Can you make your message more compact? Or did you make your message too brief? That is, did you oversimplify your message?

· What type of feedback are you likely to get when you send your message. Based on your anticipated feedback can you improve your message to obtain a better response from your listener(s) or reader(s).

· Did you get adverse feedback when you sent your message? If so, what information can you derive from the feedback? Can you send another message that is corrected, based on what you learned from the feedback?

· Does your organization have any weaknesses in its communication channels? Can its management communicate well with its employees, and vice versa? Can the organization communicate adequately with the consumers, and vice versa? Can the various departments in the organization communicate well with other components of the company?

· Do you have any weaknesses in communication skills? Can you improve your communications skills? What are your strongest communication skills? Can you make these skills even stronger?

Chapter 11: Organizational Culture and Management and Related Ideas

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Introduction and Definitions

What is organizational culture? If you ask most people this question, they might not be able to provide an answer. However, if you ask what does culture mean they might say it is the heritage of an ethnic group. If you put the same question to an anthropologist, the response might be: "the totality of a human society's tradition of thought and its expression in behavior." (Alland A. 1980, p 626.) The definition for organizations and their management is similar, but it is not exactly the same. This becomes apparent from the following definitions of organizational culture, which was taken from the indicated sources:

1) "The unique pattern of shared assumptions, values, and norms that shape the organization's socialization activities, language, symbols, and practices." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p. 530.

2) "An organization's norms, beliefs, attitudes, and values." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p. 205.

3) "A common perception held by the organization's members; a system of shared meaning" Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p. 681.

The above definitions do not provide enough detail to explain the concept of organizational culture. I will define and explain the term in more detail in the following paragraph.

Organizational culture is the shared beliefs, and related behavior patterns, held by management and its employees. The word shared means that a large majority of the people that are involved with the organization have more or less a similar set of beliefs in relation to the organization. The word beliefs means organization related assumptions, attitudes, norms, fantasies, values, any mental data. The term beliefs also applies to any mental cognitions that are related to: ways of doing things in the organization; ways of evaluating in the organization; ways of perceiving reality within the organizational environment; ways of responding in the organizational context; ways of communicating in the organization, including jargon and style of language. The words organization related mean: assumptions, attitudes, norms, fantasies, values, or any ideas, that are relevant to the organization, and are believed to be either important, correct, proper, or appropriate for the organizational environment by a majority of the people involved with the organization. The words related behavior patterns mean in this definition: ways of doing things, actions or inhibitions that result from the organization related beliefs. The words held by management and its employees suggest an important component of organizational culture. It is not strictly a property of management. It includes the beliefs (assumptions, attitudes, norms, fantasies, values, or any mental cognition) the employees have in relation to the organization.

The organizational related beliefs of an employee develop from experiences and the learning process within the organization. The experiences and learning interact with the personality and societal culture and subculture that the employees had before they worked at the organization. Thus, management does not have total control over the development of an organizational culture. Management can try to instill a specific set of beliefs in its employees, but this effort may or may not be successful. An organization can also try to hire people who have the set of beliefs that fit the organizational culture. However, it might be quite difficult or impossible to find enough employees that have the required belief system.

In general, people who are involved with an organization, develop the beliefs and related behavior patterns of the culture, in a socialization process. That is, they learn the appropriate beliefs and related behavior patterns from the organizational environment, especially from other employees. They learn the appropriate behavior patterns by inadvertently or intentionally watching and copying the behavior patterns of individuals of similar job status. Employees might also learn the organizational related beliefs and related behavior patterns from training supplied by management, which can involve, individual instructions, seminars, films, and even reading material.

The individual does not necessarily develop all of the beliefs and behavior patterns associated with the organizational culture. They develop the beliefs and behavior patterns that are related to their roles in the organization. This, and other factors, can sometimes lead to the development of organizational subcultures.

Organizational Subcultures

What is an organizational subculture? It is shared beliefs and related behavior patterns, held by a section of the organization, such as a specific division, department, or a specific group or category of workers, which is usually a variation of the organizational culture. That is, certain segments of the people involved in the organization, develop a shared set of beliefs and related behavior patterns that differentiate them from other individuals involved with the organization. This concept is analogous to a subculture in the larger society.

An organizational subculture can have beliefs and behavior patterns that can range from highly functional to highly dysfunctional, from the perspective of management. For example, employees that work in a factory might have a subculture and related belief system that restrict the productivity of the workers. The Hawthorne Studies reveal such a situation, which is apparent from a book written by the original researchers, Frtz J. Roethlisberger, and William J. Dickson, (1939 and 1967) Management and the Worker. The subculture and related beliefs of the factory workers that were studied in the Hawthorne plant can be summed up by the following four statements and related quotations^{^[41]}:

There is a finite amount of work available. If the employees work to fast some of the workers will be laid off because there will not be enough work, or they might cut the rate of pay, or some other adverse consequences might manifest. This belief can be seen in the two quotations that follow:

NOTE (The bogey was the goal set by management and it was actually 7,312 wire connections a day. Few workers would reach such a goal.)

"Well you see if they start turning out around 7,300 a day over a period of weeks and if three of them do it, then they can lay one of the men off, because three men working at that speed can do as much as four men working at the present rate."

It is unfair to work faster and be more productive than other workers, because such behavior will ultimately hurt the other employees. The work should be shared so nobody loses their job. That is, it is unfair and counterproductive to compete with other workers by trying to work as fast as possible. The proper behavior is cooperation, which means working at a moderate rate that does not put other workers at a disadvantage. This belief can be inferred from many of the quotes from the Hawthorne Studies, including the following discussion of a subculture deviant.

"W₆: (Talking about a relative of his who worked in the plant) "She gets in here early and gets ahead and makes up a lot of parts so that when the rest of the girls start in she's already got a whole lot stacked up. In that way she turns out a great deal of work. She's money greedy. That's what's the matter with her and they shouldn't allow that. All she does is spoil the rate for the rest of the girls."

Int: "How does she do that?"

W₆: "By turning out so much. When they see her making so much money, they cut the rate."

If a worker violates the above rules he or she will be punished by one or more of the workers. This can include verbal criticism, or even mild physical punishment, such as a "bing," which is a controlled form of physical aggression, where one individual strikes another in the upper arm. This is apparent from the following:

"If you don't quit work I'll bing you." W₈ struck W₆ and finally chased him around the room.

Obs: (A few minutes later) “What's the matter, W₆, won't he let you work?"

W₆: "No. I'm all through though. I've got enough done."

Workers that obey the restrictive production norms of the subculture will be accepted and liked by their fellow workers. This is apparent from the following:

"The fellows who loaf along are liked better than anybody else. Some of them take pride in turning out as little work as they can and making the boss think they're turning out a whole lot. They think it's smart."

Organizational Culture And Subculture As An Analogy To Societal Culture

What Is Culture

To understand organizational culture better, we can look at an organization as a tiny society, with its own culture and subcultures. We can think of an organizational culture as a microcosm of the larger society. Such an organizational society will have its own set of: assumptions, attitudes, norms, fantasies, values, ways of evaluating, ways of perceiving reality, or any other type of mental imagery or data that is related to the organization's society. And just like a larger society, it will have its own behavior patterns stemming from the basic beliefs of the culture. Of course, organizational cultures, are not as complex as a true societal culture. Organizational cultures generally do not have their own written and spoken languages, governments, or religions, but they might have their own jargon, rules and beliefs. It can take a new employee only a few months to master the ideas and behaviors associated with an organizational culture. Compare this, with the many years that it takes for an individual to master the basic principles, including language, and behavior patterns of a true societal culture.

One can make a good argument, based on the above, that organizational cultures are not really cultures. They are subcultures of the larger society. This idea becomes apparent, when we consider that organizational cultures do not deal with all aspects of life, as is the case with a societal culture. They do not pass on their cultural heritage from parent to child, generation after generation. Organizational cultures are generally restricted to a specific work environment. If the individual obtains employment at another organization, she will quickly develop the beliefs and behavior patterns of the new work environment. However, in spite of the above, the concept of organizational culture and subculture are highly useful. This will become apparent in the following paragraphs.

Other Models and Ideas in Relation to Organizational Culture

Robbins presents (p 681) an interesting conceptualization of organizational culture, which is based on "seven primary characteristics that, in aggregate, capture the essence of an organization's culture." That is, the seven characteristics can be used to describe an organizational culture, by stating the characteristic and the relative strength of that characteristic. The seven components are as follows:

1) "Innovation and risk taking. The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks." This trait^{^[42]} relates to creativity, and it is a necessary component for innovative development of new technologies. That is, risk taking is an essential part of experimentation and research. An organization that has this trait to a high degree, probably would not consider a negative outcome of a formal or informal experiment or a trial a failure. They would probably consider it as a learning experience or a ruling out of certain possibilities. That is, when any type of experiment or trial is carried out, a positive or negative result provides needed information for further research and development. Thus, there is no reason to consider a negative to be a failure, from this perspective.

A high level of the above trait would probably be beneficial in any company that must compete by developing new technologies and products, such as manufacturers of: software, computer electronics, drugs, medical instruments, etc. A high level of this trait would probably be counterproductive for small organizations that market a traditional product, and do not compete on the basis of product development. Examples are established Chinese restaurants and check cashing services.

2) "Attention to detail. The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail." This trait relates to carefully carrying out precision work. This is extremely important in the technological industries, such as in electronics and drug manufacturing, where lack of attention to detail can mean a useless product at best. For some industries, such as the automobile and drug or chemical manufacturers, lack of attention to detail, can result in injuries or fatalities. This trait is not particularly important for organizations that are engaged in sales, especially if the organization is a discount store. It is not extremely critical, if merchandise is not displayed in an optimum way, but in some cases this might reduce the rate of sales.

3) "Outcome orientation. The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on the techniques and processes used to achieve these outcomes." If this trait is not coupled with ethical restraints, it can result in serious legal problems for management and its employees. For example, a company can achieve goals partly or totally by illegal means, if this trait is not restrained with an adequate degree of ethical standards. However, the trait can be potentially useful in any company that needs a high degree of creative and innovative input. For example, it is often possible to find more efficient ways of producing chemical compounds and electronic components, by developing new technologies.

The opposite of this trait is an organization that has strict bureaucratic rules and precise ways of doing things. This can greatly reduce efficiency, as well as creativity, and product innovation.

4) "People orientation. The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization." A high degree of this trait, will essentially mean a humanistic environment. This trait is probably highly useful in organizations that have a great deal of difficulty finding qualified employees, such as an industry that needs, accountants, computer programmers, engineers, scientists, and other professionals. A low level of this trait might benefit small manufacturing industries that higher unskilled workers on a seasonal basis. A very low level of the trait might also be functional, from a business perspective, for the farm industry, where migrant workers are hired on a seasonal basis.

5) "Team orientation. The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals." This concept is used in many Japanese companies. Many modern American organizations started to use a team orientation in recent times. The relative degree of rationality of this trait probably depends on the type of industry, the societal culture that the workers come from, and the individual personalities of the employees. Some people do not like to work in teams, or they do not have the communication skills or personality traits that are needed for team work.

6) "Aggressiveness. The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing." This trait relates partly to the degree of competition versus cooperation. A culture that facilitates competition between employees is likely to facilitate some type of aggressive behavior. This is especially the case if the work environment is very frustrating. However, such behaviors can be highly functional in certain environments, if it involves each worker trying to outperform the other. Appropriate aggression focused on the organization's competitors can also be functional.

Aggressiveness can be dysfunctional in environments that require carefully coordinated team work. If the aggressiveness is inappropriate, involving verbal or physical attack, it is certainly dysfunctional in any type of organizational environment.

Cultures that are at the other extreme, easygoing, most likely have a belief system that relates to cooperation and sensitivity to the feelings of others.

7) "Stability. The degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to growth." There is always a risk in change and growth. This might be more the case for some industries than for others. In industries, where technology does not change significantly, such as a Chinese restaurant, a high level of this trait might be functional.

Stability might be a dysfunctional cultural trait for industries that exist in unstable environments, which involve continuously changing circumstances. A good example is found in the computer industry. Computer hardware and software industries are good candidates for change and growth. In fact, these industries are forced to change continuously, to keep up with the new technologies.

The seven traits, delineated above, do not seam to describe all organizational cultures adequately. I would add the following to the list:

8) An ethical focus. The degree to which management is concerned with ethical standards. Some organizations are totally focused on ethical standards, such as the Catholic church, as well as other religious institutions. At the other extreme there are organizations that have very little concern for ethics, such as organized criminal groups. In-between these two extremes, lie the typical organization, which will generally follow the law, and maintain reasonably high ethical standards, but under some conditions might focus on profits at the expense of the well-being of the environment and human beings in general.

9) Profit orientation. The degree to which management is concerned with profits. Some organizations exist only to make a profit for their owners or stockholders. They see themselves only as money making enterprises that exist for the purpose of making a profit. There are organizations that are just the opposite. Such organizations are nonprofit institutions that were created to satisfy a specific need in society. There are many organizations that are more or less in-between these extremes. They make a profit, but they do not maximize their profit at the expense of the employees or customers. These organizations see themselves as serving stockholders, employees and consumers.

10) Consumer orientation. The degree to which management is concerned with the satisfaction of the consumers. Some organizations focus much attention on satisfying the needs of the consumer. If they are profit making organizations, they assume that the most effective way to make a high profit, is to satisfy their customers. In general, the amount of consumer orientation, can range from an extremely high level to a relatively low level depending on the organization.

11) Employee orientation. The degree to which management is concerned with the satisfaction of the employees. This factor is likely to be present when the workers have much power, such as when the employees are professionals, who are in short supply.

12) Friendliness. The degree to which employees appear to be friendly and sociable with each other and with customers. There are organizations that convey a very friendly atmosphere. When you enter such a facility you see people casually talking with each other, with friendly smiles on their faces. If you ask an employee a question, you get a polite smile and a friendly response. There are organizations that are just the opposite. When you enter such a facility, you see serious looks on the employee’s faces. They seem irritable, unfriendly, and preoccupied with their own problems and concerns. And of course most organizations are somewhere in-between these extremes.

13) Degree of social formality Some organizations are highly formal, in the way the employees dress, talk, and behave. Some organizations are just the opposite, the employees dress in casual clothes, they talk in a highly informal way, and they behave in a casual and natural manner.

14) The degree of intelligence used in carrying out tasks Some organizations perform tasks in a highly intelligent manner. This relates to maximizing the chances of reaching the organizational goals, with the greatest level of efficiency and the lowest level of risk. This relates to the application of excellent management, in relation to all the tasks performed by the organization and its employees. It can also relate to highly intelligent and self-disciplined employees who know how and are willing to perform the tasks in an intelligent manner. There are organizations that are just the opposite of the above. They perform tasks essentially in a stupid manner. This will interfere with achieving organizational goals, and it will result in unnecessary risks, which can result in unnecessary failures, money losses, and accidents. Probably, most organizations are somewhere in-between these extremes. They perform their primary tasks in a highly intelligent manner, but they also perform some of their tasks without careful thought or consideration. Occasionally, this can lead to severe financial problems, such as when a company fails to evaluate intelligently the risks and expenses it faces.

15) Trust Some organizations appear to trust their employees. That is, the atmosphere projected by management and the employees is mutual trust. This attitude might also involve a high degree of trust of customers. Some organizations are just the opposite; management is in effect paranoid, or highly distrustful of employees. The atmosphere conveyed in such organizations is general suspicion toward employees, which is likely to manifest in careful supervision. This general suspicion might also be focused on customers and the outside environment in some cases, which can involve an excessive number of security guards. Most organizations are somewhere in-between these extremes.

16) The emphasis on maintaining prestige or status Some organizations spend huge sums of money maintaining a proper image. This can involve careful decoration of facilities, and teaching or coaxing employees how to communicate with the public. In addition, it is most likely to develop a massive public relations effort, including advertising in the mass media, such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, etc.

There are companies that are just the opposite of the above. They give little, if any, attention to their image. Such companies may focus on their services and products, and not worry about their image.

The sixteen traits, discussed above, might be quite useful for any individual who is looking for an organizational setting that she will fit in well with, such as for a job, schooling, or a recreational club. That is, the person can rate themselves on the above sixteen traits, using a scale from minus ten to plus ten, to determine their personal cultural preferences. A minus number indicates the opposite of the trait in question. The higher the positive number the stronger the trait. After rating your self on the scale, then rate the cultures of various organizations. Then try to find the organization that matches your traits.

A careful examination of the traits discussed above, suggests an interesting insight. The traits can delineate a culture based on the different management styles that Douglas McGregor delineated, which consist of two belief systems called theory X and theory Y. In addition, the traits can also delineate the management style delineated by William G. Ouchi, which is theory Z. These managerial styles are essentially based on beliefs of the manages, which can affect or determine the organizational culture that manifests throughout the organization. This idea is outlined below:

· A management that believes in theory X has a negative attitude toward the employees. Such a management believes that most employees tend to dislike work, are lazy, have little ambition, will avoid doing their job if they can get away with it, are intellectually limited, and generally lack creative potential. Thus, the management that believes in theory X, concludes that employees must be carefully supervised and threatened with punishment to motivate them to do their jobs. Managers with this belief generally will not consult with the employees they supervise; they will just give orders. Thus, a theory X culture can be delineated by a low level of: 1) Innovation and risk taking, 3) Outcome orientation, 5) Team orientation, 11) Employee orientation, 12) Friendliness, 15) Trust.

· A management that believes in theory Y, thinks in a way that is essentially the opposite of the above. They believe that employees basically like work, can learn to accept and like responsibility, are relatively intelligent, are potentially creative, are capable of self-discipline, and can manage their own work. Thus, a management that believes in theory Y concludes that employees need to be treated well, they need relatively little supervision, and do not need much guidance. A management that believes in theory Y is likely to consult with the employees, before making final decisions. Thus, a theory Y culture can be delineated by a high level of: 1) Innovation and risk taking, 3) Outcome orientation, 11) Employee orientation, 12) Friendliness 15) Trust.

· The management style called theory Z, which is popular in Japan, incorporates certain concepts that relate to Japanese culture. When management believes in theory Z, they consider the capabilities, the judgment, and the power of groups to be of utmost importance and utility. They believe that generally a group has more knowledge, experience, and creativity than an individual manager. A management that believes in theory Z tries to create an environment of openness, trust, and group involvement in organizational affairs. The employees are treated as valuable members of the organization and group, and they are usually never fired. Thus, a management that believes in theory Z will consult the group to deal with managerial problems. They often have regular meetings with a group of workers to improve production quality and cut costs. The managers who accept theory Z are also concerned with the quality of the work environment and its impact on the employees. Thus, a theory Z culture can be delineated by a high level of: 1) Innovation and risk taking, 3) Outcome orientation, 4) People orientation, 5) Team orientation, 8) An ethical focus, 10) Consumer orientation, 11) Employee orientation, 12) Friendliness, 15) Trust, and a low level of 6) Aggressiveness.

The above, suggests that theories X, Y, and Z, and the factors that comprise these management styles, can be used independent of any other method, to delineate organizational cultures and subcultures. That is, a culture or subculture can be described on the relative degree of its similarity to each theory, on a scale from 0 to 10, such as in terms of the X, Y, Z values. For example, a culture that is purely an X culture, would be represented by (10, 0, 0). A culture or subculture that is an equal combination of all three, would be (5, 5, 5). A culture or subculture that is primarily a Z culture, but has some components of theories X and Y, can be represented as (1, 1, 10), etc. Alternatively, the individual components of the three theories, X, Y, and Z can be used to describe organizational cultures and subcultures, such as in terms of the relative degree of: employee trust, faith in employees creative potentials, belief that employees are intelligence, believe that employees are motivated, team work, etc.

In actual practice, employees in different departments might have significantly different cultural or subcultural environments, as a result of different philosophy and treatment by management. For example, assembly line workers and maintenance personnel might be exposed to a subculture based on theory X, as a result of managerial beliefs about unskilled employees. In the same organization, the highly skilled personnel, such as engineers, might be exposed to a theory Y subculture, as a result of managerial beliefs about the professional employees.

Robbins presented another model of organizational culture, devised by Jeffrey Sonnenfeld (pp 683-684). This model has four general labels that are intended to be used to describe organizational cultures. The model does not have the precision or utility of the models presented above, but it provides some additional insight and it can be outlined as follows^{^[43]}:

· "Academy" An academy is an organizational culture that essentially trains its employees and advances them to higher status jobs, over an extended period of time. That is, the employee might start at a relatively low level in the company, within a specific field, and be advanced to a higher level as experience and skills improve. Organizations in this category generally provide considerable training for their employees, and generally prefer to hire young employees who just completed college. "According to Sonnenfeld, IBM is a classic academy."

· "Club" Cultures in this category place a high degree of value on commitment, loyalty, and prefer employees that fit in well with the organization. Seniority, age and experience are valued factors by the club culture. Examples of club cultures are "United Parcel Service, Delta Airlines, the Bell operating companies, government agencies, and the military."

· "Baseball Team" This type of culture values employees that are entrepreneurially oriented. It is an environment that encourages risk takers and innovators. Organizations with this type of culture seek employees who have talent, regardless of age or experience. Cultures in this category offer large financial incentives and freedom for the most productive and innovative employees. According to the description in Robbins's book the organizations that are most likely to have a baseball team culture include companies involved in: accounting, law, investment, banking, consulting, advertising, software development, and bioresearch.

· "Fortress" The fortress is an organizational culture that often manifests when a company is having serious financial problems and its future existence is in question. Organizations in this category may have had a culture that was very different, before the financial difficulties. Organizations with a fortress culture generally do not offer much job security. According to Robbins's description companies with fortress cultures include: large retailers, forest products companies, and natural gas exploration firms.

§ The four categories, academy, club, baseball team, and fortress, do not really delineate the fine details that relate to a true organizational culture. At best these categories are extremely general, but it is perhaps interesting to try to put various organizations into the appropriate categories. Hellriegel & Slocum (pp 537-541) also presented four general types of organizational cultures. These categories might be slightly more precise, and useful than the above, but they do not really delineate the fine distinctions between cultures. The four categories are presented below:

· "bureaucratic culture An organization in which employees value formalization, rules, standard operating procedures, and hierarchical coordination." Examples of this type of culture are found in the city, state, and federal government agencies. The culture is based on formal rules and documentation. The primary values of the bureaucratic culture are predictability, efficiency, stability, and managers see their role as maintaining the above. Managers in this type of culture, try to coordinate, organize and enforce formal rules and standards. However, in practice bureaucratic cultures, are not necessarily efficient. Following the formal rules, that is, going by the book, can sometimes result in even greater inefficiency. However, in many cases, the managers and employees may be legally required to go by the book. A related problem of inefficiency in bureaucratic cultures can sometimes be the result of lack of understanding, by the lower level officials, of the highly complex rules. This, and other problems, can greatly slow up, or even stop, the functions that relate to the primary purpose of the bureaucratic organization.

· "clan culture The attributes of tradition, loyalty, personal commitment, extensive socialization, teamwork, self-management, and social influence." This type of culture has some of the properties of an extended family or tribe. The clam culture is scented around mutual commitment and loyalty, for both the employer and employee. The understanding is that employer and employee have a unique set of responsibilities to each other, which goes beyond the official contract of employment. The loyalty and commitment is achieved by means of a long term socialization of employees, which include learning the norms and values of the culture. A high value is placed on people, especially customers. Consensus decisions are often made in this type of organization.

· "entrepreneurial culture Exhibits high levels of risk taking, dynamism, and creativity." This culture is committed to experimentation and the development of new products. The culture is focused on innovation and rapid organizational growth. Entrepreneurial cultures are usually, but not always, small to medium-size organizations. Robbins points out that the 3-M Corporation is an example of a large entrepreneurial culture.

· "market culture Values achievement of measurable and demanding goals, especially those that are financial and market-based." This culture is primarily focused on the marketing of one or more products or services. Specifically, the focus is on sales, profits, and increases in market share, and everything else is of relatively little importance. The individuals that perform well based on the above criteria, will be rewarded financially, and employees that fail to meet the performance standards will most likely be dismissed. The market culture does not promise loyalty. The obligations between employees and the organization are contractual, which means "the obligations of each party are agreed on in advance." This can involve the setting of performance goals for each employee, which can be based on monthly, quarterly and annual time intervals.

Luthans & Hodgetts also list four classifications of organizational culture, but they are very different from the categories that Hellriegel & Slocum presented. These cultural categories, according to Luthans & Hodgetts, relate to the relative degree of risk and the speed of obtaining feedback in job related tasks. This will be apparent from the following^{^[44]}:

The "tough-guy macho culture" is a high risk fast feedback culture, such as in the construction industry. The personality type that does well in this culture is usually young, prefers speed, is often individualistic, and likes to win.

The "work hard/play hard culture" is a low risk fast feedback culture, such as in the sales and insurance industries. The successful individuals in this culture are often high achieving team players.

The "bet-your-company culture" is a high risk slow feedback culture, such as in the oil-well exploration, and in industries that design and manufacture expensive equipment in a made to order fashion. The individuals that do well in this type of culture are usually technically skilled and can tolerate ambiguity on a relatively long-term basis.

The "process culture" is a low risk slow feedback culture, such as in accounting and routine manufacturing. Individuals that are successful in this culture are usually cautious, and they tend to be strict rule followers.

The four categories, especially "tough-guy macho culture" might be more accurately described as subcultures in many organizations. For example, a construction company that has "tough-guy macho culture" might relate to the societal subculture, the organizational subculture, and personality of the construction workers. Management and the other employees working for the company might adhere to a very different organizational culture. They are also likely to come from societal subcultures, and have personalities that are very different from the construction workers. This idea becomes apparent, if we imagine a very large construction company, with its own accounting department, its own architect and engineering department, and its own executive offices. People that work in these departments are not likely to adhere to the "tough-guy macho culture." The same basic ideas apply to the other three categories, but perhaps to a lesser degree. In general, the average personality of the employees, especially within a department, or job category, relates to the formation of an organizational subculture. Organizational culture generally relate to: the beliefs and related behaviors that management supports, coupled with the cultural, social, and psychological components of the employees. The organizational culture is not related to a specific job category, such as construction worker, or accountant. However, an organizational subculture can be related to a specific department and job category, such as the sales force selling the services of a construction company.

The three different classification systems presented above, by Robbins, Hellriegel & Slocum, and Luthans & Hodgetts can be used more or less as a single classification system that delineates components of a culture. This becomes apparent if you examine these categories, which are: academy, club, baseball team, fortress, bureaucratic culture, clan culture, entrepreneurial culture, market culture, tough-guy macho culture, work hard/play hard culture, bet-your-company culture, process culture. However, even in combination these categories do not delineate the many complex variations of organizational culture.

Conclusion

Organizational culture is a complex phenomenon, which cannot be totally controlled by management or anyone else. It involves the beliefs and related behavior patterns of everyone involved with an organization. Thus, many problems can result as a result of deficiencies or excesses in an organizational culture. The following questions are intended to delineate these problems or potential difficulties:

· Can you describe your organizational culture in terms of a set of beliefs and related behavior patterns? Our the beliefs and related behavior patterns functional or dysfunctional, or somewhere in-between these extremes?

· How does organizational culture or subculture relate to your problem? How can you define your problem in terms of dysfunctional components of either organizational culture or subculture?

· What are the primary beliefs, norms, values, and methods supported by management? What are the primary beliefs, norms, values, and methods supported by the employees, in each department of the organization? Are the beliefs, norms, values, and methods supported by management the same as the beliefs, norms, values, and methods supported by the employees? If there is a difference between management and employees in relation to beliefs, norms, values, and preferred methods, does this cause a problem? If so, explain the problem.

· Are the beliefs, norms, values and methods supported by management functional or dysfunctional, or somewhere in-between these extremes? Are there any ways that management can improve its culture? Are the beliefs, norms, values, and methods supported by the employees functional or dysfunctional, or somewhere in-between these extremes? Can the functionality of the organization be improved by changing the beliefs, values and methods supported by the employees?

· Are there any organizational subcultures in your organization? If so, are the subcultures functional or dysfunctional from the perspective of the overall well-being of the organization? How can you deal with the problems that result from a dysfunctional organizational subculture? Can you reassign the relevant employees into different departments, to neutralize the dysfunctional subculture? Can you change the beliefs and attitudes of the employees that comprise a dysfunctional subculture?

· In what way does the culture or subculture of the organization, you are dealing with, relate to the culture of the larger society? In what way does the subculture of the employees affect the organizational culture and organizational subculture(s)?

Chapter 12: The Hawthorne Studies and Related Ideas

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Hawthorne Studies

Note: This paper, Chapter 12, was originally submitted for a course on Organizational Behavior, but it is included here, in a slightly modified form, because it fits in well with the theme of this book.

What We Can Learn From the Hawthorne Studies

The Hawthorne Studies is an important scientific investigation for organizational behavior and the practice of management. These studies were conducted from 1924 to 1933 at the Western Electric Company located in Hawthorne, Illinois,^{^[45]} which employed approximately 29,000 workers. This company assembled telephone related equipment for the Bell System, and was interested in determining if additional lighting could result in an increase in productivity. The studies were carried out initially by the company's engineers. The results they obtained were confusing and ambiguous. Harvard professors Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger and William Dickson were called in to try to resolve the confusing puzzle. In an effort to solve the ambiguous puzzle much was learned about human behavior in the workplace, which had a major impact on the philosophy and practice of management from the 30s and beyond. By examining the Hawthorne Studies, as will be done in this paper, it is still possible to learn many interesting ideas and principles from this research.

The Hawthorne Studies were not planned to be a major long term investigation of human behavior in organizations. The original purpose of the study was only to test the benefits of additional lighting in the workplace, and nothing more. Specifically, the goal was to determine the optimum level of lighting and to prove that additional lighting can increase productivity. This first part of the Hawthorne Studies began in 1924 and involved the following. The level of illumination was increased in three sections of the plant. The results that were obtained were confusing and mysterious. "The productivity of one department varied erratically, and productivity in the other two increased, but, again, erratically, so that the researchers were not sure of the true cause of the change." (Pepper, Gerald, L., 1995 p. 86.)

The researchers carried out the illumination experiments again, with a more precise set of controlled conditions. This involved two groups of similar workers that were doing identical tasks. One of these groups was used as a control group, which meant no change in the illumination was made in their work environment. The other group, the experimental group, worked under various lighting conditions. The obvious assumption would be that the control group would not change its productivity, and the experimental group's productivity should vary with the lighting conditions. If the lighting was low, productivity should drop. If the lighting was normal, productivity should stay the same. If the lighting was increased to optimum levels, productivity should increase. However, a very confusing result was obtained. The productivity in the control group and the experimental group increased to about the same level. Needless to say, this was surprising and confusing to the researchers. The researchers thought that maybe the confusing results were caused by a mixture of artificial and natural illumination.

They decided to test the above theory by eliminating the natural light sources. That is, the experiment was repeated with only artificial lighting, which was at a lower illumination level than the lighting of the previous experiment. The results were even more puzzling and confusing than before. Productivity increased again in both the control and experimental groups. There were some decreases in productivity only when the lighting was reduced to the level of bright moonlight.

Thus, the confusing results of the experiment did not seem to make any sense. The workers produced more under all three conditions, which was increased lighting, decreased lighting, and no change in lighting. The only reduction in productivity was when the lighting was reduced to an extremely low level. Apparently, the results were caused by something other than lighting. Thus, there was a real mystery here^{^[46]}.

At this point the Harvard professors Elton Mayo, Fritz Roethlisberger and William Dickson were called in to try to solve this strange mystery. From this point on the Hawthorne Studies no longer focused on the illumination problem. The goal was, at this point, to figure out the nature of the mystery. The researchers initially believed that the mysterious experimental results related to relative degrees of fatigue in some way.

In their effort to solve the mystery, the Harvard professors tried to work out their experiments very carefully. They took six women telephone relay assemblers from the regular workgroup. "Before this was done, the women were informed of the nature of the experiment and told not to perform any differently than they would normally." (Pepper, Gerald, L., 1995 p. 86.) (See the note marked with a * at the end of this paragraph.) The women's work output was measured, without any experimental manipulation, in the new group environment for a period of five weeks. The work these women did was not paced by any machine mechanism, such as a moving assembly line, which made their work useful for experimental purposes. It was also relatively easy to measure their individual work output, because of the nature of the assembly work that they did. The work output of each woman was recorded in their original workgroup for a period of two weeks, before they were separated into separate groups for experimental observation. The experimental observations were focused on fatigue and how it affected productivity. Various factors were manipulated, such as giving longer rest breaks, giving shorter rest breaks, offering snacks, not offering snacks, shortening the work day, lengthening the work day, etc. The results were essentially similar to the illumination experiments, a mystery. That is, no matter what experimental variable was manipulated the productivity tended to increase. This increase was even present when there was no experimental manipulation.

*NOTE (Incidentally, informing the women that their work was going to be studied is a major oversight. This awareness can invalidate any results that can be obtained, under many conditions. The ideal way to perform such studies, whether it involves illumination, fatigue in the work environment, new equipment, new production procedures, or whatever, is not to inform the workers that they are being studied, and not to remove them from their regular work groups. However, the five week adjustment period and evaluations without experimental manipulations that the Hawthorne researches provided would partly compensate for the fact that experimental and control subjects were in a different group than previously.

Perhaps some would argue that not informing the workers that they were going to be studied, would be unethical, but if their identities were kept anonymous, the ethical issue should be considered resolved.) END OF NOTE

Another experiment that was carried out involved a group of five women. Rest pauses and the length of the workday, were experimentally manipulated. The results of this study were not totally consistent with other studies in this series, but they were mysterious nevertheless. Productivity increased only to a point, and leveled off. Variations in the activity of the women were noted. A primary difference between this group, and the other experimental groups, were the workers never formed close personal ties with each other. However, just like the other experiments, the overall results were puzzling and confusing.

The researchers also tried manipulating wages in terms of bonuses paid for doing a certain quantity of work. These bonuses did not appear to have much of an affect on the productivity of the workers.

Thus, the Harvard researchers, to this point, increased the mystery. However, they were able to unravel the mysterious results by changing their research strategy. They stopped experimenting, and started communicating with the workers. They conducted ten thousand interviews, "resulting in over 86 000 comments on eighty interview topics." (Pepper, G, L., 1995 p. 88.) In the beginning the interviews were carried on for about 30 minutes each, but as the research progressed the sessions were lengthened to one 60 to 90 minutes. To check and reinforce the information obtained by the interviews the Hawthorne researchers also decided to watch and listen to the workers performing their jobs.

The interviews and the observations revealed that the work groups had certain group norms that controlled productivity. There was a concept of what constituted a day's work. If an individual exceeded what was considered a day's work, he or she was in effect punished by the group. The level of conformity to these norms determined the degree that the individual was accepted socially by the group.

In the following paragraphs there are some actual comments taken from the original interviews and observations, which reveal the above in detail. The words that are in bold type and underlined are the original comments of the workers and the individuals involved in collecting the information. The comments from the interviews and the observations were taken from F. J. Roethlisberger, William J. Dickson, Management and the Worker, copyright 1939 and 1967, pages 413 to 423. Note, that these two authors were the original Harvard researchers involved with the Hawthorne Studies. Each of the original statements is followed by one or more paragraphs of my interpretation and related information that can be derived from the statements. (The Hawthorn workers had their own jargon. However, as you read through the text their terminology and feelings becomes understandable. I provided some brief statements to clarify their jargon, when it appeared necessary.)

The above authors used the following designation to designate the job title of the people. W= Wireman, S = Solderman, GC = Group Chief, Int. = Interviewer, Obs. = Observer. A number with a subscript was added by the authors to designate the individuals involved.

W₁: "6600 is the bogey. Yes see, that's two sets. There are 3,300 connections on a set. Now on selector wiring the bogey is only 6,000, because there are only 3,000 connections on a set. In order to turn out 6,600 there, you have to wire three levels on a third set."

Int: "6,600 is your bogey then?

W₁: "Yes, it's 6,600. Yes see they told us if we got out two sets a day it would be all right. That's a pretty good day's work too. Actually this worker, just like most of the other workers interviewed defined a day's work as wiring up two electronic devices. This definition of a day's work was the same, even if the electronic device had 3,300 or only 3,000 connections. The bogey was the goal set by the company and it was actually 7,312 connections a day. Few workers would reach such a goal. As will be seen later, there were strong group norms against exceeding the workers' definition of a day's work, which was the wiring of only two electronic devices.

W₂: "You know, some of those fellows stall around for three months before they turn out 6,000. There's no reason for that at all. I could turn out 6,000 in three weeks. I think the rest of them could if they wanted to....I'm making around 7,000 every day....I don't mind that [their fooling around] as long as it doesn't interfere with the work. I never fool around until I have my bogey out. That is the first thing. When I get my bogey out, then I don't mind loafing around a bit." This worker believes that the other workers could learn to be more productive if they wanted to. He points out, that many of the workers are employed for three months before they turn out 6000 connections a day, suggesting that they can do much better. This worker (W₂) defined a day's work for himself as 7,000 connections. This is a violation of the informal norms of the group. Some of the fooling around that he talks about, in relation to the behavior of his fellow workers, is probably teasing with some real hostile intentions focused on him, because of the violation of the informal group norms.

W₃: "I turn out 6,600 regularly. That's about what is expected of us. Of course you could make out less and get by, but it's safer to turn out about 6,600."

Int: "And is 6,600 your bogey?"

W₃: "No, our bogey is higher than that. It is 914 an hour." This worker follows the group norms of 6,600, which is the wiring of two electronic devices. He did not answer the interviewer's question or did not understand the question, when the interviewer asked him "is 6,600 your bogey?" (This means what is your goal for the typical workday as far as production is concerned.) His reply of 914 and hour is the idealized goal set by the company.

W₄:" I think connector wiring is the better job. The boards aren't as heavy [as on selectors] and you have an extra bank. You see, the rate on connectors is around 6,600 and on selectors it's only 6,000." The numbers W₄ is giving takes for granted the wiremen's definition of a day's work, which is the wiring of two electrical devices a day, as based on the informal group norms. Specifically, 6,600 connections is the number of wires that must be connected to complete two electrical devices of the first type he mentions (called the connector). The second electrical device the worker mentions, selectors, requires only 6,000 connections to wire two of them. Thus, this worker's concept of a day's work is the same as the previous worker quoted, which is the wiring of two electrical devices in one work shift. This concept is shared by most, but not all, of the workers in the study.

It is interesting to note that this worker prefers to work on connectors. This is true of most of the wiremen, in spite of the fact that connectors have 300 more connections than selectors. The reason generally given for this preference is that selectors are lighter in weight. The researchers did not believe this explanation, because it is only necessary to carry two of the devices to the working area each day. The researchers believed that the real reason the wiremen preferred connectors related to social status within the group. This did not generally relate to money, because the hourly rate for wiring connectors and selectors were essentially the same. That is, according to the researchers: "The connector wireman represented the elite." (Roethlisberger, F. J. & Dickson, W. J., 1939 and 1967, p. 496.)

Incidentally, the soldermen, who worked with the wiremen, were believed to be the lowest status group members by the researchers. When employees started in this type of work, they would start as soldermen, with a lower rate of pay than the wiremen. Soldermen might be promoted to a wiremen, after they were working in the plant for a period of time.

W₅: "I turn out 100 per cent efficiency right along. That means I turn out 6,600 a day^"1

Int: "Is the bogey 6,600 a day?"

W₅: "No, that's not the bogey. The bogey is 7,200, I think." The following note appeared on the bottom of the page, in the original source. "¹n order to have an efficiency of 100 percent, a wireman would have to wire 7,312 terminals a day." The 7312 figure is the company's definition of 100 percent efficiency, which is the bogey. However, this worker's definition of 100 percent efficiency is 6,600, which is the informal group norm for the proper work output, which is the wiring of two electronic devices.

W₆: "Well, the bogey is pretty high. I turn out 6,600 a day write along and that is pretty good, I think, for the average.

Int: "Is that the bogey?"

W₆: "I think it is."

Int: "Then you are making 100 per cent efficiency?"

W₆: "Well, I don't know about that. I don't think I am turning out 100 per cent. You see the bogey was 914 an hour for an 8 3/4-hour day, so I suppose it will be about 6,600 for an 8-hour day. This worker appears to be trying to rationalize his average level of production, which is the group norm of 6,600, or two electrical devices wired in a day. The amount for a 8-hour day would be 8(914)=7,312, not 6,600 which the worker incorrectly estimated to be correct for the interviewer.

W₇: "6,000 a day is the rate, I guess there's another rate that's higher than that, but the bosses tell us that 6,000 is a day's work. This is essentially the wiring of two electrical devices, if the worker is wiring selectors, which require 3,000 connections for each device. If he is wiring connectors, (which requires 3,300) his work output is slightly below the group norm, of two electrical devices wired in a day.

Thus, the quotations from the seven workers clearly indicate a concept of a day's work based on the wiring of two electrical devices. "This was verified by the observer, who found that the operators frequently stopped wiring when they had finished their quotas even though it was not official stopping time." (Roethlisberger, F. J. & Dickson, W. J., 1939 and 1967, p. 414.) That is, the observer reported that they saw many of the workers stop work after they wired two electrical devices.

The concerns about being laid off, because of increases in productivity, was expressed in the interviews, but there were many other concerns also expressed about exceeding the worker's definition of a day's work. The following are quotations from the workers and interviewer:

"If we exceed our day's work by any appreciable amount, something will happen. The 'rate' might be cut, the 'rate' might be raised, the 'bogey' might be raised, someone might be laid off, or the supervisor might 'bawl out' the slower men." This quotation is a general statement presented in the original source (Roethlisberger, F. J. & Dickson, W. J., 1939 and 1967, P. 417) as a summation of the attitudes of the workers that were interviewed.

W₂: (After claiming that he turned out more work than anyone else in the group) "They [his co-workers] don't like to have me turn in so much, but I turn it in anyway." (In another interview) "Right now I'm turning out over 7,000 a day, around 7,040. The rest of the fellows kick because I do that. They want me to come down. They want me to come down to around 6,600, but I don't see why I should. If I did, the supervisors would come in and ask me what causes me to drop like that. I've been turning out about that much for the last six months now and I see no reason why I should turn out less. There's no reason why I should turn out more either." This worker is apparently a deviant as far as the group norm of 6,600 connections or the wiring of two electrical devices a day is concerned. However, it appears that he also has a concept of a day's work that is a little greater than the norm. The last sentence indicates that he believes there is no reason to do any more work than he does.

W₃: "No one can turn out the bogey consistently. Well, occasionally some of them do. Now since the layoff started there's been a few fellows down there who have been turning out around 7,300 a day. They've been working like hell. I think it is foolishness to do it because I don't think it will do them any good, and it is likely to do the rest of us a lot of harm."

Int: "Just how do you figure that?"

W₃: "Well you see if they start turning out around 7,300 a day over a period of weeks and if three of them do it, then they can lay one of the men off, because three men working at that speed can do as much as four men working at the present rate."

Int: "And you think that is likely to happen?" W₃: "Yes, I think it would. At present we are only scheduled for 40 sets ahead. In normal times we were scheduled for over 100. If they find that fewer men can do the work, they're going to lay off more of us. When things pick up they will expect us to do as much as we are now. That means they will raise the bogey on us. You see how it works" This worker has definite fears about the consequences of exceeding the concept of a day's work, of 6600 connections or two electrical devices wired in a day. The interviewer does not seem to be capable of relating to the worker=s concerns. He questions the employee=s concerns by saying: "And you think that is likely to happen?" There probably is a gap between the working class worker, and the interviewer who is probably middle class and college educated. The realities faced by the unskilled and semiskilled factory workers are very different from the experiences of the middle class professional or semi-professional. Factory workers do get laid off if management can produce more work with fewer workers.

Int: "You say there is no incentive to turn out more work. If all of you did more work, wouldn't you make more money?"

W₄: "No, we wouldn't. They told us that down there one time. You know, the supervisors came around and told us that very thing, that if we would turn out more work we would make more money, but we can't see it that way. Probably what would happen is that our bogey would be raised, and then we would just be turning out more work for the same money¹. I can't see that." The following footnote appears on the bottom of the page of the original source: "¹It should be remembered that raising the bogey could not have this effect unless it resulted in lower output." This note also suggests a misunderstanding between the workers and the optimistic middle class perspective of the researchers. Companies have been known to set prices for work based on the number of units that can be produced by a factory worker in a day. If it is obvious to the management that workers can produce more for the same money, the company might take advantage of the situation. We often see this when new technology is incorporated into a production process. Less workers do more work, and they may get paid less, if operating the machine requires less skill than the older methods. That is, employers do not necessarily pass on the economic gains to factory workers, that result from increases in their productivity. Such gains might be passed on to consumers in lower prices, or to executive level employees, or to the stock holders of the company. Of course, in some cases such gains are passed on to factory workers, especially if there is a union involved.

W₄: (To W₆) "Go on, you slave, work. You're enough connections ahead now to take care of Friday."

Obs: (To W₄) "Is W₆ going too fast to suit you?"

W₄: "He's nothing but a slave. A couple more rows and he'll have 8,000."

W₆: "No, I won't. I haven't got today's work out yet."

W₄: "You should have quit when you finished that set."

W₆: "I'm good for another 6,000 connections. If they'd pay me for it, I'd turn 'em out." W₆ is apparently a fast worker, which is confirmed by the statements in the original source. The kidding and related remarks that W₄ is inflicting on W₆ most likely have some real hostility connected with it. This type of kidding appears to be a way of partly concealing the true level and seriousness of the hostility. This method of partly concealing hostility is apparently used by the entire group, which will become more apparent in the following paragraphs.

A major error becomes apparent in the Hawthorne observations, by examining the notes from the observer, which is abbreviated Obs. in his notes. The observer was obviously known to the group, and he was communicating with the workers. Obviously the workers were aware that they were being watched. All of the above can greatly affect behavior and communications amongst the workers. Such obvious observations can totally change the behaviors of the people being observed in some cases. How much it actually affected the behaviors and communications from one worker to another is not known. Since the interviews and the observations of the wiremen and soldermen are fairly consistent, it probably did not affect the interactions of the workers to an extreme degree, in this part of the study^{^[47]}. However, these observations should not be considered scientific, because of the errors or oversights mentioned above.

GC₂: was taking the output count.

W₄: (To W₆) "How many are you going to turn in?"

W₆: "I've got to turn in 6,800."

W₄: "What's the matter-are you crazy? You work all week and turn in 6,600 for a full day, and now today you're away an hour and a quarter and you turn in more than you did the other days."

W₆: "I don't care. I'm going to finish these sets tomorrow."

W₄: "You're screwy."

W₆: "All right I'll turn in 6,400."

W₄: "That's too much."

W₆: "That don't make any difference. I've got to do something with them."

W₄: "Well, give them to me."

W₆ did not answer. W₆ is a fast worker, who apparently violates the group norms to some extent, which is limited to the wiring of to electrical devices a day. From the observer's notes it is apparent that W₆ misted over one hour of work. In spite of this he produced more than 6,600 connections. W₄ apparently is pressuring W₆ to turn in less, on the official records. The above observations, and the text that follows, clearly indicate that the workers simply do not work as hard as they could. This was already determined to be the case from the interviews.

W₂: (To S₁) "Come on, get this set."

S₁: "All right." (To Obs.) "I want to introduce you to Lightning [W₂] and Cyclone [W₃]. When those two get going it's just like a whirlwind up here. Give W₂ a big chow of snuff and he just burns the solder right off the terminals." The most obvious error here is W₂ and W₃ were introduced by S₁ to the observer. In addition, they were introduced as fast workers. This certainly is not an example of scientific observation. As already indicated the observer should not be seen if the observations are to be considered scientific. Perhaps, an exception to this might be in the case of participant observation, and such observations could only approach scientific levels of perfection if the people involved do not know they are being observed.

S₁: (To Obs.) What's a guy going to do if these fellows won't quit work?"

Obs: "That's it, what?"

S₁: "Keep right on working."

Obs: "There you are. Now you've got it."

S₁: "W₂ has 8,000 and he don't know enough to quit. Well, if he wires 8,000, I must solder 8,000. That's it, isn't it?"

Obs: "Sure." W₂ does not appear to be concerned about breaking the group norms. Another possibility is the reality, is that S₁ and W₂ are concerned that the observer is connected to management, which is in fact the case. The workers might be simply concerned that they will eventually be reported, which certainly was not the intention of the Hawthorne Studies. Thus, they may be putting up a show for the observer. This is of course possible with all of the interviews, and observations. Some workers may have felt that it was to their advantage to communicate to management their dissatisfaction with the work environment and the related level of work desired by management. Of course, the above possibility, is probably not the case, but the point is that it could be, and the data gathered cannot truly be considered scientific.

W₈: (To W₆) "Why don't you quit work? Let's see, this is your thirty-fifth row today. What are you going to do with them all?"

W₆: "What do you care? It's to your advantage if I work, isn't it?"

W₈: "Yeah, but the way you're working you'll get stuck with them."

W₆: "Don't worry about that. I'll take care of it. You're getting paid by the sets I turn out. That's all you should worry about."

W₈: "If you don't quit work I'll bing you." W₈ struck W₆ and finally chased him around the room.

Obs: (A few minutes later) "What's the matter, W₆, won't he let you work?"

W₆: "No. I'm all through though. I've got enough done." He then went over and helped another wireman. W₆ is one of the fast workers who often breaks the informal group norms of a day's work. W₈ is quite annoyed here by W₆'s industriousness. W₈ gives him a final warning, threatening to bing him, and then carries out the warning.

Bing is a controlled form of physical aggression, where one individual strikes another in the upper arm, according to the description in the original source. Binging was used to settle disputes and it had a special utility in controlling the group members to produce no more than a day's work. That is, if someone worked faster or produced more than he or she was supposed to the individual faced the risk of a bing (a punch in the upper arm) by another worker.

From the above notes of the interviews and observations it is apparent that a set of informal norms and values developed amongst the workers, which partly went against the official standards and goals of the company. That is, the Hawthorne Studies indicate that the workers often had a hostile attitude toward the company and its standards. "It is also clear that the Hawthorne Studies gave the first clear evidence of subcultural variation in the workplace." (Pepper, G, L., 1995 p. 90.) That is, the informal norms, values, beliefs, attitudes and related behaviors of the workers at the Hawthorne plant, can be conceptualized in terms of an organizational subculture that is partly in opposition to the main organizational culture.

This organizational subculture probably developed partly as a result of the societal subculture, past employment experiences, personality related factors and financial insecurity that the Hawthorne workers brought to the workplace. These factors combined with the social interactions in the work environment and the development of personal relationships amongst these workers, produced a specific type of organizational subculture.

The subculture that developed amongst the factory workers in the Hawthorne plant was basically noncompetitive, cooperative,^{^[48]} and was more or less intended to be based on the concerns for other workers, as well as the self. Specifically, the concept of the day's work, was partly based on a worker not doing more than his share of work, because it was believed that it can put other workers at a disadvantage.

A Hawthorne factory worker that does more than a day's work could make a little more money, because of the small bonus paid. Such a person might possibly be advanced to a slightly higher position, and at the very least his or her employment would probably be maintained by the company even in times of job layoffs. However, all of the above would essentially involve competing against the other workers, by trying to produce more than the definition of a day's work, which was prohibited by the norms of the subculture that developed amongst the factory workers in the Hawthorne plant.

Most likely the subculture norm that restricted production primarily developed as a result of self-interest. The Hawthorne workers probably felt quite insecure if other workers were competing against them by producing as much as possible. In addition, the workers probably found the restrictive production norms that they created to be useful in preventing overwork and the related stress of working to the maximum level. The development of the norm was also clearly related to a belief that by controlling production the workers would get paid more in the long run.

In addition, the development of the norm of restricting production to a certain level was also probably related to the fear of being laid off. That is, there was a concern that there simply would not be enough work to go around, if the workers produced at a maximum level. This may have been a legitimate concern, because these workers were faced with the possibility of being laid off during the years of the great depression. There were in fact some workers that did lose their jobs, which is apparent from some of the comments made in the interviews.

I will get back to the concept of organizational subculture and related norms later on in this chapter, because now it is time to resolve the mystery. What caused the strange results of the Hawthorne experiments? From the interviews and observations it is apparent that the Hawthorne workers did not work to their maximum level under ordinary working conditions. They were restricted by the group norm of a day's work, which limited their productivity significantly. When they were placed in experimental and control groups the norms from their previous workgroups were no longer active, meaningful or significant. Thus, without the restrictive norms they produced more. There is an additional factor that could have contributed to the strange results, which is given by most sources as the cause of the strange experimental results. The workers were under close experimental observation by the researchers, which also can be a primary contributor to the increase in productivity. That is, when people are given the special attention associated with being experimental subjects, they may be very cooperative. They may want the experiment to work. They might invest much effort in doing what they believe the experimenter wants, which can result in very significant increases in performance. This concept is now called the Hawthorne effect, and it is often considered in most human behavior experiments. That is, experimenters in psychology, social psychology, sociology, organizational behavior, and related fields try to avoid the Hawthorne effect, because it can ruin an experiment by giving inflated performance related results.

However, after carefully examining the notes that resulted from the Hawthorne interviews and observations, I do not believe that the Hawthorne effect was the primary cause of the increase in productivity in the Hawthorne experiments. Actually, it was simply the breakdown of the restrictive norms that existed in the regular workgroups. This becomes obvious, if we keep in mind that the interviews and observations simply indicate that the workers were deliberately producing at a lower level than they could. In addition, some workers interfered with the work of other workers. This interference even involved physical aggression.

Incidentally, it is interesting to note that the special attention associated with the interviews and observations did not result in a detectable increase in production. That is, the interviews and observations did not cause a noticeable Hawthorne effect. Thus, it is perhaps questionable that the observations in the experimental and control groups caused a significantly large Hawthorne effect.

Thus, the evidence is that the restrictive production norms broke down in the experimental and control groups. However, this can be looked at from a slightly different perspective. That is, one can make a moderately good counter argument to the above, by saying that the breakdown of the norms was the result of the special attention that the workers received in the experimental and control groups, and this is one of many possible ways that the Hawthorne effect can manifest. However, the important point is to realize that the restrictive production norms were not functioning in the groups the experimenters set up, which most likely resulted in the mysterious increases in production.

Thus, the mystery is solved, and now we can examine what else we can learn from the Hawthorne Studies.

What were the overall conclusions of the Hawthorne researches? The conclusions were quite complex, and appear not to have been primarily focused on solving the mystery that originally stimulated their interest, but they did believe that the mysterious experimental results were caused by the methods of observation used in the experimental procedures. That is, by examining the literature, that these researchers wrote, it is apparent that their focus was expanded, from simply solving a mysterious research result, to a more substantial set of goals, which involved the development of general information and methods for management. (The literature I am referring to in the above sentence is the following book.) This culminated in a 615 page book on the Hawthorne Studies, written by two of the researchers (Fritz Roethlisberger and William Dickson), called Management and the Worker. Thus, their basic conclusions are elaborate, but they have been summarized in many publications and textbooks. An especially good summary appears in Saal, Frank E. & Knight, Patrick A. (1995) Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice (2nd edition), which is as follows:

"1. An individual's work behaviors are rarely consequences of simple cause-and-effect relationships but are more often determined by complex sets of multiple factors." This basic idea actually applies to almost all human behavior phenomena and studies. Human beings are complex entities and cannot be understood and studied in the same manner as the hard scientist studies the simple entities and principles that relate to the physical universe. For example, all hydrogen atoms of a specific isotope behave in exactly the same way, because they are identical. Human beings are never identical, and thus can behave in ways that are totally unique to the individual or group. Thus, a human behavior related theory or methodology may work with one group of individuals, under a specific set of circumstances, but it may not work with a different group of individuals even if the circumstances are the same. This becomes obvious, if one thinks of the many different cultures, subcultures, and variations in personality. These factors affect perception, responses and behavior, which can make a theory or method work with one group of individuals and not with another group.

"2. Groups of workers develop their own norms or expectations of group members' behaviors that interact with each individual worker's personal needs and the demands of the work setting." The process of developing norms, expectations of group members, etc., as seen in the Hawthorne work groups, is essentially the process of developing a subculture within an organization. The subculture that the worker is in interacts with his or her psychological makeup. In addition, the psychology of the individual workers making up a group, will be a primary factor in determining the nature of the subculture that develops.

"3 Job-related symbols of prestige and power influence the social structures of these work groups." This is essentially a general property of most groups and societies, and the exact natures of the symbols of prestige and power that influence social structure are generally determined or influenced by culture and subculture. The culture of an organization and/or the subculture that develops in work groups can determine or influence the nature of the symbols of prestige and power.

"4 An individual's unique needs and satisfactions can be understood only in the context of her personal life." This point applies to human beings in general. Factors that help with the understanding of a person's needs and satisfactions include their culture, subculture, financial circumstances, family structure, sex, age, physical health, personal interests, goals, and individual psychological makeup.

"5 Workers' almost reflexive resistance to changes can be reduced by acknowledging there feelings and including them in the decision-making process." This is likely to be quite correct in most, but certainly not all situations. If the decisions are perceived by the worker as being unfavorable the worker is not likely to reduce his or her resistance. However, generally human beings do not like being treated like inanimate objects. They like to feel that they have some control over their circumstances, and involving them in the decision-making process can have a favorable effect.

"6 The workplace is a social system, not merely a system for producing goods or services." A work environment can be thought of as a society within a society. The society, or social system, that exists in the work environment essentially has its own culture and subcultures, just as the larger society does.

The six ideas discussed above all relate to the unique qualities of human beings. Thus, it should not be surprising that the Hawthorne Studies and the conclusions of the Harvard researchers contributed to the development of the human relations school. This perspective focuses on the needs of the worker as an individual, within the organization that he or she works in. That is, this view of organizational behavior is based on the assumption that the motivations and needs of the employees interact with the official structure, objectives and methods of the organization. And the idea is that the above factors and the way they interact will determine how the organization actually functions. This human relations view resulted in a higher level of sensitivity to the needs of the workers.

Thus, the Hawthorne Studies had a positive impact on human needs in relation to employment and advocated better relationships between management and employees. I believe it is fortunate that the data from the Hawthorne Studies were interpreted in such a way to produce a result that was beneficial to the workers. The information obtained from the studies could have been interpreted in a way that is very different from the above. A careful examination of the interviews and observations revealed that many workers were hostile to management, were working at a slower rate than was justified, were interfering with the work of other workers by inflicting unjustified verbal and physical punishment if they produced more than the group's definition of a day's work. The reaction to these results could have been to monitor the workers closely, greatly increase discipline, fire workers that are not working at the desired production standards set by management, and to fire workers that verbally or physically abused other workers for any reason. That is, the data from the Hawthorne Studies could have been interpreted in such a way as to advocate a get-tough-policy toward workers.

It should be kept in mind, that the Hawthorne Studies and conclusions are not an example of a truly scientific investigation. The deviations from scientific precision partly relate to the fact that workers often new they were being observed. This was the case under both experimental conditions and under general observations that were not experimentally manipulated. In some of the observer's notes, from the Hawthorne Studies, it is clear that the observer is talking to the workers, which can greatly affect the behavior of the workers as well as their production rate. In addition, the conclusions of the Harvard researchers are highly admirable, quite useful in many management situations, but they are more of a philosophical nature than an example of science.

My criticisms and somewhat different interpretation of the Hawthorne Studies and resulting data are not unique. There are many such criticisms. The following is a quotation from Saal, Frank E. & Knight, Patrick A. (1995) Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice (2nd ed.) page 16:

"A half century of debate has confirmed that the Hawthorne Studies do not represent perfect field research (Yorks & Whitsett, 1985). For example, statistical reanalysis of the data suggested that more than 90% of the improvements in the Hawthorne employees' performance could be explained by such extraneous factors as improved raw materials increased supervisory discipline, and workers' anxiety about being laid off (Franke & Kaul, 1978)."

My critical comments of the Hawthorne Studies are not a criticism of the efforts of the Harvard researchers, because they were dealing with human beings in a very complicated manufacturing facility, which employed approximately 29,000 workers. And sometimes, but certainly not always, when dealing with practical problems that involve human beings, a philosophical evaluation and conclusion are of more value than a truly scientific study. That is, when we are dealing with inanimate entities, it is easy to be scientific, whether or not the study is for practical or theoretical purposes. If a study suggests that the most efficient solution to a manufacturing problem is to destroy the old machinery and sell it for scrap metal, and purchase new equipment, there is no ethical problem. However, a scientific study that suggests something similar in relation to human beings, is totally unacceptable and unthinkable, even if we are convinced that it would result in an increase in production. Even firing people, or pushing them to work to the point of significant physiological and psychological stress, poses a serious ethical problem, even if such actions lead to improved productivity. The people that employ and manage workers are also human beings with the capacity for empathy, which fortunately might rule out the use of certain methods of increasing productivity. Thus, philosophy and ethics are important in developing methods and ideas about human behavior that may be applied in practical ways. Hence, when evaluating the imperfections of the Hawthorne Studies and related conclusions, it is necessary to keep the above in mind. That is, the researchers probably were quite sensitive and aware that they were dealing with human beings, which may have influenced their conclusions toward a humanistic perspective, as opposed to another view, such as a get- tough-policy toward the workers.

There are many other ideas that can be developed by evaluating the problems and information from the Hawthorne Studies. This is done in the following paragraphs, starting with some additional thoughts about organizational subcultures.

The subculture that developed in the Hawthorne plant is probably not unique to that plant. Organizational subcultures that are more or less similar, involving restrictive productivity norms based on the workers' definition of a day's work, probably developed under manufacturing conditions that are roughly similar to the Hawthorne plant. Specifically, where the:

· Rate of production is not controlled by a conveyor belt of an assembly line or any other automatic mechanism

· Where the workers can work at their own pace

· Where the workers can see the rate that other workers are working at

· Where the workers can communicate with each other and form relationships with each other

If the above conditions exist and there are poor employee management relationships, the chances of an adverse subculture developing are probably greatly increased.

Thus, a question that arises is what does a manager do with such a situation? Answers are suggested in the four items on the above list. If the rate of production can be controlled by an electronic mechanism, such as an assembly line conveyor belt, the problem might be solved. If the workers cannot see each other's rate of production, the problem might also be prevented or solved. If workers doing a specific type of work are separated in various sections of the plant, the problem might also be prevented or solved. A good employee management relations program might also reduce the chances of the development of an adverse subculture developing amongst the workers. The Hawthorne researchers would advocate this last item, which is obvious from the literature they wrote.

NOTE (The word might was used in the above paragraph, because there is no certainty that the methods mentioned would work under all circumstances, but they probably would work under some conditions.)

In general, there is a high probability that organizational subcultures will develop amongst workers that interact on a regular basis as a result of the work environment. The goal of management should be to try to make every effort to see that such subcultures are friendly to management and its goals. A major cause of the problems of productivity that were seen in the Hawthorne plant was probably partly the result of a poor management employee relations effort. Specifically, showing a genuine sensitivity to the needs and emotional feelings of workers can probably reduce the chances of the development of an organizational subculture that is hostile toward management and its goals.

There is a general tendency for hostile subcultures to develop when there is any type of adverse or unpleasant control imposed on a less powerful group, such as with the factory workers in the Hawthorne plant. However, this tendency is not limited to factory workers, or even to the work environment. It is a general tendency that might manifest under many types of organizational or group structures. This will become apparent if you think about the following examples where hostile subcultures can develop:

· any type of work group

· some student groups

· teenagers and there subculture

· in poor communities where hostile gangs of young people may form

· in state and federal prisons

· in prisoner of war facilities

Thus, the point is that the development of hostile subcultures is a general tendency that happens when more powerful cultural forces impose controls, that are perceived as hostile or significantly unpleasant, on a less powerful group. Thus, what was seen in the Hawthorne Studies, in this regard is certain not limited to the environment that existed in the Hawthorne production facility. A general solution to this problem is to make all concerned realize the necessity of the controls, and present such controls in ways that are not likely to be perceived as hostile and/or threatening to the interests of the less powerful group members.

The above is easier said than done. In some situations, controls and demands by management may truly be against the interests of some of the workers. If for example, there are efforts to increase the productivity of the workers, with the aim of reducing the number of employees, the goal is clearly against the interests of the people that will lose their jobs.

Another general idea suggested by the Hawthorne Studies is the informal concept of a day's work held by the employees. This concept can develop as a result of an organizational subculture as already indicated, but it can also develop independently of any organizational subculture, within the mind's of the workers. The concept of a day's work is present in many occupations, and is certainly not limited to the circumstances of the Hawthorne plant during the studies. Workers often have an idea of what a fair, or appropriate, day's work is. If they reach this level before their work shift is completed, they might stop working, pretend to be working, or get involved in conversations or other non-work related activities. Some workers may pace their work at a moderately slow rate so they do not have any idle time to waste, until they are permitted to leave the workplace. When workers are permitted to leave based on their own discretion, they may try to finish what they believe is an appropriate amount of work for a day, and then they might leave the workplace. In such cases, they might rush through the work with the aim of completing it in the shortest possible time, so they can leave as early as possible.

Under certain circumstances the worker's definition of a day's work will be more or less based on the smallest amount of work that the employee believes that he or she can get away with. In such situations, if the employee finds that he or she can work at 90 percent of officially defined work output for a day, he or she might than try to lower the level to 80 percent. If 80 percent is accepted, he or she might try to lower it to 70 percent. This process of lowering the work output might continue until the employee finds the lowest level of work output he or she can get away with. The employee might be doing this in a way that is more or less inadvertent. People often do not like their jobs and it takes willpower to do their work. If the employee=s willpower is not helped along with appropriate standards and guidance from management, the result might be a lower work output. Thus, appropriate observation and guidance can probably reduce the significance of such a problem. NOTE (The word might was used in the above paragraph because all workers are certainly not inclined to behave as described. However, the point is that there are some employees that will behave as described under certain conditions.)

Thus, the informal concept of a day's work as defined by the workers, can be a problem for management. Generally, management might want to obtain as much work as possible from each worker. This may not always be a functional approach, as will be discussed a little later on in this text. A more functional approach might simply be to set the pay scale based on the worker's concept of a day's work. If a worker does more, he or she should get paid accordingly.

The above is not the same as offering a small bonus for doing more than the informally defined concept of a day's work, because when such bonuses are offered the worker usually does not get paid a full additional day's pay if he or she accomplishes an extra day's work over a period of time. From the worker's point of view, he might feel that he is getting gypped, or he might simply feel that the effort is not worth the small compensation that is paid by the employer for doing the extra work. Keep in mind that such bonuses did not work when they were tried in the Hawthorne Studies. Of course, under some conditions such bonuses might work to increase production.

Another method of dealing with the problem of the worker's concept of a day's work, is not to place workers doing the identical job in groups, which was already mentioned as a possible way of preventing the development of a hostile subculture that restricts production. Of course, in many cases this is simply not a feasible solution, because many other problems can result, such as difficulties with supervising the workers, problems with transferring the needed supplies to the workers, problems instructing the workers, psychological problems of working alone, etc.

Another highly useful way of reducing the problem of low productivity, as a result of the worker's definition of a day's work, is to select employees with personalities that facilitate high levels of production. This was even apparent in the Hawthorne Studies. The wireman designated W₂ and W₆ in the observations produce more than the worker's definition of a day's work, in spite of the punishments they would receive from the other workers. Thus, individuals with certain types of personalities, under certain conditions will be significantly more productive than other employees. Of course, this does not indicate anything about such personality types, or how to select such individuals. In general, the best way to select such workers is probably by trial and error. Perhaps careful interviewing can also be of some help in this selection process. Potential employees that show no concern about high workloads in the interviews are probably more favorable than those who show a concern about workload.

Thus, there are a number of ways of avoiding the problem of the workers' restrictive definition of a day's work. However, it should be kept in mind that a worker's concept of a day's work, might be quite functional for all concerned in some cases, even though it might make the worker less productive. It might serve the purpose of preventing excessive emotional and physiological stress on the worker. Such stress can cause both physical and mental disorders, as well as errors in production, accidents, and high employee turnover. The above can be quite expensive. Sick leave can increase the medically related costs for a company. An error in production, can ruin an expensive device that is being manufactured. For example, one wire connected to the wrong terminal in an electrical device can make it useless. Accidents can cost the company money in compensation, legal fees, and increased insurance rates. Employee turnover can cost the company money for finding new workers and training them. Thus, the gains made by pushing workers beyond their concept of a day's work might be outweighed by the resulting financial losses and related risks to the well-being of the workers, in some cases.

In the following five paragraphs I will cover some important ideas about measuring worker performance, which was less apparent in the period when the Hawthorne Studies were carried out. The utility of these ideas become apparent if the data from the Hawthorne experiments are examined.

To truly obtain accurate studies it is necessary to measure the worker's performance in their usual work environment under the usual working conditions that exist in that environment, and not to inform the workers that they are being experimentally evaluated. There are other considerations that are discussed below.

When people are exposed to new situations, such as increased illumination, new equipment, new work methods, etc., there is very likely to be an initial change in productivity, which can be greater or less than the previous level of productivity. This initial change may or may not indicate a long term change in productivity. In general, there can be many unknown components as well as known factors that can temporarily increase production in certain cases. This result can be called a positive placebo effect. A temporary reduction in productivity, as a result of some change in the production facility, can be called a negative placebo effect. That is, there can be many unknown components as well as known factors that can initially interfere with production when changes are made. The temporary increase or decrease in production as a result of a change can often be predicted if enough factors are known. This can even be estimated on a graph in terms of the change in production. Such graphical representations might be important when dealing with temporary reductions in productivity as a result of introducing new equipment.

Some examples will clarify the above ideas. If the decorations and illumination of a factory are increased, one possible outcome is an increase in production do to the enthusiasm associated with the more attractive environment. This enthusiasm may wear off in a few weeks, resulting in a level of production that was no greater than previous levels. Another example, which is probably much more common, is the effect of introducing new equipment or methods, which can in some cases result in an initial reduction in productivity, even if the new technology has been proven useful in other facilities. That is, the workers may not know how to use the new equipment or utilize the new methods at an efficient level. In addition new equipment or methods often have many imperfections in them, which must be corrected. The workers can initially have concerns and adverse emotional responses to the new technology, which can interfere with production. Thus, evaluations can initially indicate a very significant reduction in productivity in some cases, which can take weeks to overcome. That is, as the workers develop the knowledge and experience with the new equipment or methods, productivity may increase. If the new equipment or methods are truly of value, the increase in production will reach a level that is greater than the level of production that was achieved before the new technology was applied. Of course, this may not happen in all cases. Sometimes new technology simply does not work under a specific set of circumstances as well as older methods. However, generally as the workers become more experienced with the new technology, the productivity exceeds all previous levels.

Another important idea that relates to the evaluation of people and their productivity is called the Hawthorne effect, which was already discussed earlier in this paper. This concept is of course obviously named after the Hawthorne Studies. When people are put under evaluative observation and given special attention, their productivity may increase as a result, which can interfere with an accurate scientific evaluation. This phenomenon, as already discussed, is believed to have accounted for the mysterious results of the Hawthorne experiments. However, the opposite effect is also possible. That is, when people are put under evaluative observation and given special attention their productivity may decrease as a result, under certain conditions, which can interfere with the evaluation. That is, a negative Hawthorne effect is also possible, in some cases.

The primary point of the above paragraphs is whatever the initial evaluation indicates in relation to any type of change(s), it should not be considered as an indication of the long term evaluation. That is, the short term evaluation can indicate one result and the long term evaluation can indicate an entirely different result. Of course, there are situations when the short term evaluation and long term evaluation are the same.

NOTE (The above paragraph represents a general principle of evaluating, which applies to any type of evaluation, and it is not limited to the work environment. Some examples will clarify this general principle of evaluation. Most of us have had experiences with evaluating electronic equipment, medication and people, in everyday life. We often find that electronic equipment, such as personal computers; initially reduce our efficiency until we learn how to use it with a reasonably high level of skill. Those who took their first experiences with a computer too seriously probably gave up before they developed the needed skills to use the computer at a highly productive level. That is, such individuals evaluated their abilities and/or the usefulness of the computer in the earliest stages of the learning process, and concluded that they lacked the abilities needed to master the use of computers or decided that computers are not useful devices for the type of work they are doing. This type of erroneous evaluation, based on the early stages of learning, is common in many situations, and it leads to unjustified discouragement. Another example is seen with the use of medication. Often, when medication is first used, it either produces unpleasant side effects, or it appears to be highly effective. Such initial results can change with time, which certainly suggests that the initial evaluation would not be valid. This evaluative principle also applies to people. When we meet people, we may find that we initially like them or do not like them. This evaluation can often change, as we get to know the individuals. There are many cases where people meet a mate, marry the person based on an early positive evaluation, and eventually get to know them at the deepest level after they are married, which can, in some cases, result in a negative evaluation and divorce. In such cases the evaluator made a positive evaluation in the early stages of the relationship without having enough information, which resulted in an erroneous assessment. There are some people that evaluate a potential mate in a somewhat different but also dysfunctional way. They evaluate a potential mate in one date in a negative way. Such negative evaluations can result from experiencing the awkwardness of getting to know a person, which often includes anxiety and saying the wrong things. Individuals that make such quick evaluations might have difficulty finding a mate. Every person they date may be evaluated on superficial minor blunders and other minor imperfections. Thus, the point is whether you are dealing with an evaluation in the work environment or an evaluation in everyday life, the best strategy in most cases is not to take the initial evaluation to seriously. The initial evaluation is often erroneous, and a longer term assessment is likely to be more accurate.) END OF NOTE

In conclusion, there is a huge amount of information that can be learned and derived from the data from the Hawthorne Studies, in spite of the fact that these studies were completed over sixty years ago. I tried to focus on the most interesting and useful ideas that can be obtained from these studies in this paper. The following list of questions summarizes some of the ideas presented in this paper. These ideas should be considered when dealing with the work environment and related problems. If the Hawthorne researchers had such a list and the related information, they could have obtained the answers to their mysteries much sooner than they did.

· What is the nature of the organizational culture and how does it impact on the employees?

· What is the nature of the organizational subculture of the workers? That is, do the workers have any unofficial norms, values, beliefs, customs, status symbols, ways of thinking, ways of interacting, etc., which relate to the work environment?

· Is the subculture hostile toward the main organizational culture? That is, do the workers have any unofficial norms, values, beliefs, customs, status symbols, ways of thinking, attitudes, ways of interacting that goes against the interests of the organization, such as by restricting production?

· Which workers have more status and which workers have less status within the work group?

· Why do some workers in the group have more status than others?

· Do the workers have any restrictive norms that limit production?

· What is the worker's definition of a reasonable day's work?

· Are the employees producing at a reasonably high level of efficiency?

· Would it be functional to try to increase the level of productivity of the workers or would such efforts cause significant problems?

· What are the group dynamics that exist and what are the group dynamics that are likely to develop over a period of time, in the work group(s)?

· Can the group(s) be reorganized into a non-group or into a different group configuration that will be more productive?

· Are the workers discontented with the work environment and/or the tasks they must perform?

· Is there any discontent in the organization, and if there is, what is the nature of the discontent, and how can it be reduced or eliminated?

Chapter 13: Human Motivations, Management and Related Ideas

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Motivation

What is motivation? If you ask most people this question, they might say it is the desire or willingness to engage in work or other activities. When this concept is applied to organizations, the term has a meaning that is not exactly the same. This can be seen in the following definitions of the word motivation taken from the indicated sources:

1) "The process of stimulating an individual to take action that will accomplish a desired goal" Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) p 451.

2) "Any influence that brings out, directs, or maintains people's goal-directed behavior." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 409.

3) "The process through which needs or wants lead to drives aimed at goals or incentives." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p G8.

4) "The willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organizational goals conditioned by the effort's ability to satisfy some individual need." Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p 212.

None of these definitions are really good descriptions of the complex motivational process that exists in human beings. Motivation is not really one thing. It is a relative concept that applies to the many different types of behaviors human beings can engage in, and none of these definitions emphasize this fact. Human beings can, and usually are, highly motivated to engage in certain types of behavior at a particular point in time, and they may have little or no motivation to engage in other types of behavior.

There are also a number of theories that are more or less part of the study of management theory and organizational behavior, which attempt to explain human motivation in more detail than the simple definitions. These theories will be discussed later in this chapter, but they are not sufficient to explain the highly complex human motivational system. An adequate explanation of the sophisticated motivational processes can be obtained, if we turn toward an analysis based on psychology for the next few pages. I will start this discussion with a detailed definition of motivation.

Motivation is an emotional or mental response, or desire, that coaxes the individual to engage in a specific type of behavior. There is essentially one type of motivation for each type of behavior, which means essentially that there are almost a limitless variety of motivations. For example, an individual might be highly motivated to engage in recreational sports, but she might lack motivation to work at her assembly line job in the factory. The same individual might be motivated to work at another type of job, such as office work.

The above suggests an important principle for managers. An employee that is not motivated to do one type of work might be motivated to do a different type of job. Sometimes even changing the work environment can change motivation. For example, some employees will be more motivated if they work with people or with additional supervision, or vice versa.

Motivation can be divided into three basic categories, which are physiological, secondary, and complex. I will discuss these three categories in the following paragraphs.

Physiological motivations are motivational responses that human beings and other mammals are born with. These motivations are needed for survival. The physiological motivations can be represented by the following sixteen desires, as follows:

· A desire to attack in anger, verbally or physically Anger is generally considered an undesirable manifestation in our society. It is the result of frustration, and it can often be avoided by reducing frustrating situations in the work environment.

· A desire to breathe This is an obvious motivation, and it was included for the sake of completeness.

· A desire to avoid cold In general, workers that are exposed to conditions that make them feel uncomfortably cold, will probably work much less efficiently. This applies to office work, studying, and outdoor work. Thus, this is a problem that could and should be avoided, with proper heating, or proper clothing for outdoor workers.

· A desire that relates to curiosity This is a desire to explore, and experience new or unusual situations. This motivation is classified here as physiological because behaviors associated with this motivation can be seen in very young children and animals, which suggests that it is innate, and not learned. The curiosity motivation also serves a survival function by facilitating the learning process, which is needed to satisfy the other physiological needs. The learning that results from curiosity can lead to innovations, which can lead to easier and more efficient ways of satisfying needs.

· A desire to defecate This is an obvious motivation, and it was included for the sake of completeness.

· A desire to drink water This is an obvious physiological motivation, which generally is not much of a problem in conventional work environments. However, this motivation can be extremely significant in very hot environments, especially if the employees are engaged in heavy physical labor. An example is construction workers exposed to the summer sun on a very warm day. Such conditions can result in partial dehydration of the body, which can result in a reduction of energy and work rate. This can be coupled with an increased risk of errors and accidents. The partial dehydration that results under such conditions is usually not caused by the unavailability of water. The problem results from a relative deficiency in the motivation to drink water. Actually, this motivation does increase under warm environmental conditions. However, it usually does not increase enough to motivate the individual to drink the large amount of additional water that is needed to replace all the fluid that is lost from perspiration. The solution is to encourage employees exposed to excessively warm temperatures, to drink significantly more water than they need to quench their thirst.

· A desire to eat What an employee ate at her last meal can affect work efficiency and performance. There are no absolute principles in this regard, because human physiology varies with the individual, and her established eating habits. However, an excessively heavy meal, especially if it contains much fat, can cause drowsiness and reduce alertness in some individuals. This might result in a reduction in efficiency, as well as an increase risk of errors and accidents. With some individuals a heavy intake of carbohydrates can have an effect that is more or less similar to the above. However, carbohydrates can have the opposite effect, for some people, which can result in an increase in energy and alertness. This can be especially the case, if the employees are engaged in heavy physical activity during the working hours.

§ For some people, skipping breakfast results in lack of energy, and a reduction in work efficiency. For other individuals, skipping breakfast has no effect on their energy level, which is likely to be the case for people who are adjusted to this eating pattern as a result of habitually skipping breakfast for a number of years.

§ Weight loss diets can in some cases affect work performance and efficiency. The dieter, in some cases, can have a significantly lowered energy level, which can result in lowered work performance, an increase in errors and accidents. Dieters sometimes become very irritable and difficult to get along with, which can result in a significant disruption of the work environment. This is especially the case if the manager or boss is irritable as a result of a weight loss diet. This irritability can be the result of a lowered blood sugar level, and it can be remedied by taking any liquid that contains sugar, such as orange or apple juice. A similar type of irritability, resulting from lowered blood sugar levels, can manifest in employees that are engaged in heavy physical labor. The same solution, sweet drinks, can remedy the problem, at least temporarily.

· A desire to exercise Some individuals might argue that there is no motivation of this nature, because many people dislike physical exercise. However, if we closely examine the evidence from our own experience, it becomes apparent that there really is an exercise motivation in human beings. This becomes apparent if you try to hold your body still for a long period of time. You will experience a desire to move. Even sitting, with little movement, for many hours, can be extremely difficult, tiring and uncomfortable. Most people have a desire to stand up and stretch and take a brief walk after they have been sitting for many hours. Even when most people are sitting, they tend to move their legs, at least a little, even when it is not necessary to move the legs to perform the work they are doing. The exercise motivation is more apparent in children than it is in adults. Children will run, wrestle, jump, even when there is no apparent reason to do so. You can see a similar response in many animals, especially young cats and dogs. This raises the question what physiological function does the exercise motivation serve? The answer is it helps with blood and lymph circulation, it maintains muscle and heart strength, and it helps maintain alertness. Thus, this motivation serves vital functions, but in spite of its physiological utility, the exercise motivation is severely deprived in many situations, including office work and school studies. The severe deprivation of the exercise motivation is probably a primary factor that makes prolonged office work and school studies extremely uncomfortable for many people. The solution to this problem consists of periodically moving the arms, legs and torso when doing office work or studying. This can also involve periodically performing activities that require movement, such as cleaning the office, or having a short exercise break every hour.

· A desire to avoid fearful objects and situations This motivation generally does not have much significance in most conventional work environments. Perhaps, it is significant in certain dangerous occupations, such as in the military, or police force. In such cases, the individual is usually expected to perform the duties in spite of the fear.

· A desire to avoid pain This motivation serves an important function, which involves warning the animal or human when physiological damage is occurring. The pain sensation can be counterproductive when an individual cannot escape from it, such as when there is internal physiological damage or a disease related condition. Employees that are suffering from pain, including the common headache, are likely to work with a reduction in efficiently, and have difficulty concentrating. However, if they manage to concentrate on their work, in spite of the pain, the uncomfortable pain sensations will be temporarily reduced or eliminated. The reason for this is it is more or less necessary to concentrate on a sensation to experience it. If the concentration is switched away from the pain toward work, the employee will usually experience less discomfort. This technique is used in hypnosis to reduce pain.

· A desire to rest This motivation can increase by working conditions that are monotonous, very warm or cold, or involve a great deal of physical exertion. The first three conditions mentioned could and should be corrected. When working conditions involve a great deal of physical exertion, provisions should be made for periodic rest breaks.

· A desire for sex This motivation manifests in many forms, and is not limited to sexual intercourse. In the contemporary work environment this motivation can cause many problems when it is improperly channeled, such as in the form of sexual harassment. With changes in philosophy and perspective in recent years, even a friendly compliment about physical appearance, harmless flirting, or a legitimate request for a date can be misinterpreted as sexual harassment if it comes from a male coworker to a female employee. This misinterpretation is probably more likely to happen if the male is a superior.

· A desire to sleep This motivation generally should not manifest in the typical work environment. However, when employees do not get enough sleep, there is a high probability that sleepiness will be a problem. This can be a significant problem on night shifts, especially when workers are periodically switched from day work to night work. The problem can be worsened by lack of mental stimulation and inadequate supervision, which can result in sleeping on the job. An even worse situation can result, when the job is potentially dangerous, such as driving a truck. The problem can be reduced, by careful supervision, and sending sleepy workers home. Employees that repeatedly show up for work sleepy, which can happen as a result of poor sleeping habits or working two shifts, perhaps should be sent home without receiving any pay for the work they did not provide.

· A desire for mental stimulation This motivation is classified here as physiological because behaviors associated with this motivation can be seen in very young children and animals, which suggests that it is innate, and not learned. Total deprivation of this motivation will result in extreme discomfort, and in some cases even hallucinations. Mild deprivation results in boredom and/or sleepiness. The mental stimulation motivation serves a vital survival function by facilitating the learning process. The learning process is needed to learn how to satisfy the physiological survival needs, especially how to obtain food, water, shelter, and avoid danger. An understanding of this motivation can be used by managers to increase the desirability of certain jobs, by making them mentally stimulating. This can sometimes be done, by job expansion, which involves increasing the variety of tasks involved with a job and/or increasing the responsibilities associated with the job.)

· A desire to urinate This is an obvious physiological need, which is placed here for the sake of completeness.

· A desire to avoid uncomfortably warm temperatures Warm temperatures can reduce work efficiency, and increase the rates of accidents and errors. This is especially the case with work that requires much physical exertion, such as construction work. The problem of warm temperatures can be a severe problem when the work is being done outdoors in bright sunlight. A solution is thin clothing that is very light in color, frequent breaks in an indoor air-conditioned facility, and a large amount of drinking water. In modern indoor environments, warm temperatures are seldom a problem, because of modern air-conditioning.

From the above list it is apparent that the biological motivations can be divided into two basic categories, which are, avoidance related and goal seeking. The avoidance related motivations are a desire to avoid cold, a desire to avoid fearful objects and situations, a desire to avoid pain, and a desire to avoid uncomfortably warm temperatures. When these motivations are activated, we feel discomfort, which can be followed by relief when the motivation is satisfied. The remainder of the items on the above list are all goal seeking motivations, such as a desire to drink water, a desire to eat, a desire for sex. When these motivations are in the process of being satisfied, we feel pleasure.

The amount of discomfort, pleasure, and desire that an individual experiences in relation to a specific physiological motivation varies as a result, of the following six factors:

· The unique physiology of the individual For example, some individuals are probably born with a relatively strong desire to engage in physical exercise, other individuals may have a very weak desire to exercise. The same basic idea would probably apply to all of the physiological motivations.

· The unique psychology of the individual, as it developed from the learning process and influence of sociocultural experiences Human beings learn from their social and cultural environments, which includes their family, neighbors and friends. What they learn can probably reduce or increase the desire to engage in a specific physiological motivation. For example, an individual that comes from a culture that has many taboos against sexual behavior, might develop some aversions toward her own sexual desires and behavior, which can reduce the relative strength of this physiological motivation, as measured in behavioral terms. Another example, is an individual that comes from a culture that encourages eating relatively large amounts of food, will probably develop the habit of overeating, which might also be coupled with deriving much pleasure from food.

· The current state of physical health of the individual Illness can interfere with certain physiological motivations under some conditions. For example, a sick person might have a reduced desire to eat, and a loss of desire for sexual activity.

· The current emotional state of the individual The emotional state can affect physiological motivations in ways that are unique to the specific individual, as measured by behavior. For example, some people eat less if they are depressed or upset, but there are people who will eat considerably more than usual under the same conditions.

· The age of the individual Age appears to influence the levels of the various physiological motivations. The following are general examples involving two physiological motivations, which are presented together for brevity. Most young children have a very strong desire to engage in some type of physical exercise, which manifests in terms of various types of play. As they grow older, into adolescence and young adulthood, there desire for physical exercise might be reduced, but there desire for sexual activity increases. As people grow into middle age and beyond, usually desires for physical activity and sexual activity gradually decline. However, an older person might force themselves to exercise to maintain health.

· The interval of time between satisfying the motivation The longer the time interval between satisfying a motive, the stronger it will usually be, and vice versa. A physiological motive that is very frequently satisfied will generally be relatively weak. For example, if an individual did not eat for many hours, she will be very hungry. A person that ate a large meal an hour ago will obviously not be very hungry.

The physiological motivations often cannot be satisfied directly or immediately, or in the most ideal way, which is especially true for human beings living in a modern society. The individual must learn how to satisfy her needs, within the framework of the physical environment and the beliefs, traditions, norms, values, and laws imposed on the individual by her society and culture. Much of this learning takes place in the socialization process, which starts at infancy and continues throughout the developing years, and may continue to some extent throughout life. For example, people are not permitted, to eat or sleep when they are being paid to work. Another obvious example, are the many restrictive and controlling norms for proper sexual behavior.

The process of satisfying physiological needs, through a process that deals with environmental, social and cultural realities, results in secondary motivations. That is, I am defining secondary motivations for this text, as a desire to satisfy one or more physiological needs by performing a set of actions. If the individual is reasonably well adjusted to the realities she faces, the set of actions will be adequate to satisfy the physiological need(s) under the environmental, social, and cultural conditions that the individual is faced with. For example, a well‑adjusted adult living in our society, might seek employment to earn money to satisfy many of the physiological motivations that were mentioned above, such as the desire to eat, a desire to avoid cold, (by purchasing clothes and obtaining adequate housing) a desire for mental stimulation, etc. Another example of a secondary motivation is the desire to socialize. Socializing with others, can satisfy the need for mental stimulation, and for single individuals it can serve the need for mate selection.

Complex motivations are motivations that cannot easily be broken down into a simple set of physiological desires. This concept, leaves room for the possibility that all motivation might not be ultimately derived from physiological motivations. However, complex motivations are probably secondary motivations, in most, if not all cases, but the primary physiological motivations involved are not totally apparent. Complex motivations can be made up of a series of simpler secondary motivations in some cases. Whether a motivation in a specific individual is classified as secondary or complex is determined by whether or not the motivation can be easily traced to physiological needs, as based on the definitions presented above. The development of complex motivations, just as is the case with secondary motivations, involves learning, especially the learning that takes place in the socialization process. Examples of complex motivations include: a desire for friendship, desires to engage in certain hobbies, desire for social status, desires to be liked or loved, desires for achievement, or any motivation that does not easily fall into the classification of physiological or secondary motivation.

From the above paragraphs, it is apparent that we all have the same basic physiological motivations, but the degree of strength of these motivations varies with the individual and circumstances that the individual is faced with. It is probably also apparent that people do not necessarily have identical secondary and complex motivations. However, individuals that live in the same society, come from similar cultural backgrounds, are of the same social class, age, and sex are likely to have many similar (but not identical) secondary and complex motivations. This is the case, because secondary and complex motivations develop as a result of the learning processes that take place in the socio cultural environment.

Whatever the type of motivation is, there is usually many ways that a specific motivation is satisfied. Each individual has a unique way of satisfying physiological, secondary, and complex motivations. This is the result of the learning processes that take place in the sociocultural environment coupled with the unique experiences of each individual. For example, one individual, might satisfy her need for mental stimulation by watching television, and another individual might satisfy the same need by socializing with friends, and still another individual might satisfy her need for mental stimulation by working on challenging physics problems. The above can also be looked at in terms of complex needs, where one person has a need to watch television, another individual has a need to socialize and another individual has a need to solve physics problems. These needs are intrinsic, as opposed too extrinsic, with the example and hypothetical individuals discussed above.

The above raises the question: what are intrinsic and extrinsic needs? Intrinsic needs or intrinsic motivations are desires that are internal in nature, and are not performed for any external reward. That is, intrinsic motivations or needs motivate behaviors that result in relief, pleasure, and/or satisfaction. Examples are: an individual that likes to play chess, an amateur photographer who enjoys photography as a hobby, an individual who is eating a tasty meal, a person that is going to sleep to obtain relief from fatigue.

Extrinsic means more or less the opposite of the above. That is, extrinsic motivations or needs are behaviors that are carried out for an external reward, such as money, a compliment, prestige, attainment of a goal. Thus, extrinsic motivations are not just related to money. The concept applies to any type of external reward or goal. An individual that works at an unpleasant boring job for money is an example of an extrinsic motivation. Another example is an individual that is attending college and spending many hours studying to obtain a high paying job after graduation. However, the student might also be obtaining some intrinsic pleasure by attending college.

Motivations are often both intrinsic and extrinsic in nature. For example, most people get some enjoyable mental stimulation from their employment. They might also enjoy the company of the people directly associated with their job, and experience many other intrinsic pleasures at work. However, their primary reason for working is usually the extrinsic reward of money. Another example, is an individual that networks while socializing in a recreational environment, with the primary intrinsic goal of enjoying the interaction with people, and the secondary goal of obtaining clients.

NOTE (Abraham Maslow originally offered the basic idea discussed in the following paragraph, in his theory, which postulated a hierarchy of needs. This hierarchy, relates to the relative degree of importance and dominance of the various needs, which was meant to apply to most if not all human beings. However, the perspective I am presenting below, assumes that each individual has her own personal hierarchy of needs. This can be called the theory of the personal hierarchy of needs. This is significantly different from Maslow's original idea. Maslow's original theory will be discussed in detail later on in this chapter.) END OF NOTE

Thus, needs can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or a combination of both of these components. However, whatever the nature of a need, it has a relative degree of importance, in comparison with other needs, in the personal life of a specific individual. That is, some needs are more important to a specific individual than other needs. This does not imply that the individual will only focus on the need that is most important to her, but with some individuals there is an extreme focus on one or two unsatisfied needs.

Most individuals will consider the basic physiological needs that are required to maintain life, to be of primary importance. If there is a serious difficulty in satisfying these needs, most individuals will neglect the less important needs, such as desires for academic and social development, and focus their time, money, and efforts on the needs required to maintain life. However, each individual has a unique priority, or personal hierarchy of needs. For example, some individuals will consider personal development, in terms of cultural, social, psychological, educational, and employment opportunities for high status occupations, as an extremely important need. This hypothetical individual would consider personal development, more important than material possessions. However, such an individual might change their focus if they achieve the personal development goals that they are striving to obtain.

In general, each individual has their own system of priorities in relation to needs, which can be called a personal hierarchy of needs. The relative degree of importance that an individual places on a specific need in their hierarchy, is determined by all of the following:

· The cultural upbringing of the individual, especially in relation to social class Each culture and social class more or less has their own hierarchy of needs. People learn values that relate to this hierarchy from the socialization process, during their developing years. For example, an individual from a working class environment may have learned to focus first on money and material possessions, and second on advanced education and personal development. An individual from a highly educated upper middle class environment may have been taught to focus on education and personal development, before focusing on money and material possessions.

§ In general, the rewards individuals seek from employment, are probably partly determined by their cultural and social class upbringing. A manager can probably put this information to good use, by studying the employees and learning what cultural and social class they are from, and what rewards they value. This information might be useful to help you determine what appropriate job incentives might be.** For example, a working class individual might consider a small raise and a new machine to reduce the work load as an excellent reward. An upper middle class person might consider an advancement to a higher job position as a significant reward, even if the work was more difficult and even if it was not accompanied by an immediate pay increase.

§ **NOTE (Of course, social class and culture cannot be used by itself to determine the needs and desires of a specific individual. Individuals can develop needs, desires, goals and interests that are significantly different from the average person from their social class and culture. However, social class and culture can sometimes be used as a starting point in understanding a specific group of employees. The primary point, to keep in mind in this regard, includes the following. The ideas we have about a specific culture and social class can be incorrect. A specific individual can be significantly different than the other members of her sociocultural group, as far as needs, values and goals are concerned.) END A NOTE

· The social class or cultural group that the individual perceives herself to be a part of The social and cultural group that the individual associates herself with in adult life, can affect her personal hierarchy of needs in very significant ways. Thus, the personal hierarchy of needs might change as an individual changes her social or cultural identification.

· The personal philosophy and unique psychological development of the individual Each individual has a unique personal philosophy and psychological makeup. This can influence how the individual's personal hierarchy of needs develop.

· The relative degree of success or failure in satisfying specific needs If an individual has been highly successful in satisfied a specific need, such as a desire to become wealthy, she might focus on other needs, such as on personal development. In addition, if an individual totally failed to obtain a specific need, such as a desire to become wealthy, she might give up, and focus on other needs, such as enjoying the simple pleasures of life, or she might get involved in personal development efforts.

The point is human beings are all unique individuals. They do have similar physiological needs, but the relative strength of their physiological desires varies with the individual. As far as secondary and complex needs are concerned, the variations from one individual to another are even greater.

In the above paragraphs, we discussed physiological, secondary, complex motivations, as well as intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, and the personal hierarchy of needs. Question: what is missing from this discussion? If we engage in some self-analysis the answer might come to us. There are things we enjoy doing, which by definition are intrinsically motivating. There are tasks and situations that fall into the opposite category. That is, there are certain things we simply hate to do, and certain situations we do not want to manifest or be involved with. These tasks and situations are unpleasant, negatively rewarding or penalizing in nature. The above concept can be defined as negatively motivating. We, can also conclude that there are negative motivations, which are tasks and situations we want to avoid, because they are intrinsically or extrinsically unpleasant or counterproductive.

We can also list undesirable tasks and situations in terms of a personal hierarchy of negative motivations. This has the basic similarities of the personal hierarchy of needs. With negative motivations, there is a hierarchy of negative tasks and situations, with varying degrees of their potential to dominate our attention and efforts. For an example of a personal hierarchy of negative motivations, I will use a hypothetical individual, which represents a typical human being living in our society, and I will call her Ms. X. Major physiological malfunctions of her body, such as, severe pain, severe illness, and medical conditions that appear to be leading to death, are the most dominant and disruptive conditions Ms. X can face. If Ms. X is faced with such a situation she is likely to do everything she can to alleviate the negative condition, if she does not get depressed and give up. Severe disabling illness that is not likely to be fatal is second on Ms. X's hierarchy of negative motivations. The loss of a major relationship such as in divorce is third. The loss of a large amount of personal property, such as losing a house and furniture in a fire, is fourth. The loss of employment or expulsion from school is fifth in Ms. X's hierarchy of negative needs. A major house cleaning effort is seventh on Ms. X's list. It is possible to list many unpleasant tasks, for eight, nine, ten, etc. Of course, the above is an example involving a hypothetical individual, and the idea to keep in mind is that each individual has in effect a personal list of situations and tasks that they consider to be distasteful, and will exert effort to avoid.

Thus, tasks that are on an individual's hierarchy of negative motivations (tasks the employee truly dislikes), should not be assigned to that individual. If it is, it will require much willpower on the part of the employee to complete the task, and much time from the supervisor to motivate the employee to work on the task.

Much of the practical information that can be derived from the material that was presented in this chapter, thus far, can be delineated and summed up with the following questions:

· Are there any ways you can make the situation or job more pleasant? What are all the possible ways that you might be able to make the job or situation intrinsically more rewarding? What are all the ways that you can make the situation or job extrinsically more rewarding? Can you make the job or situation more mentally stimulating in a positive sense?

· What are the needs of Ms. X, and/or what are the needs of Ms. X in relation to the work environment? (Ms. X of course stands for any individual, such as the employees that a manager is supervising.) Then the needs should be listed in order of importance.

· What are the negative motivations as far as Ms. X is concerned? Are there any negative motivations interfering with Ms. X's work performance? If so, what are all the possible ways the difficulty might be circumvented? What are the tasks in the work environment that Ms. X dislikes the most? Can these tasks be changed so Ms. X will not find them so distasteful? Can the unpleasant tasks be reassigned to an individual that does not perceive the tasks as excessively unpleasant?

If you are dealing with a number of employees, a list of needs and negative motivations from each employee can be helpful in understanding each individual. It can also be helpful in providing appropriate work incentives.

The above idea can also be useful in understanding and dealing with people in general, such as your: supervisor, coworkers, wife, husband, mother, father, sister, brother, friend, etc. Understanding their needs and negative motivations can facilitate a better relationship and help avoid conflict.

The above raises the question: how do you obtain a list of needs and negative motivations from the individual(s) you are dealing with? One method is simply to ask them the appropriate questions such as the following. What do you like to do best? What do you enjoy most? And/or list the tasks you do not mind doing and list the tasks you dislike. Another method of understanding an individual's needs and negative motivations is to observe them, and evaluate their responses. The observations can be confirmed or reinforced with appropriate questions, such as: Do you mind performing that task? Do you like this job? This task appears to be giving you some difficulty; do you want me to give you another job?

Motivation From a Practical Perspective in the Work Environment

To this point, the discussion was primarily focused on a general theoretical perspective of motivation, which only occasionally focused on the motivation of employees in an organizational setting. The question that was not answered is: how can the motivation of employees be increased? Job related motivation can generally be improved by the nine numbered points presented in the following paragraphs.

1) obtain employees that will not be over burdened by the goals you will be setting: That is, it is important to be certain that the employees you are choosing have the physical capabilities, mental abilities, skills, personality, and temperament that are needed to perform the tasks without an unreasonable amount of effort and stress. If an employee is exerting an extreme and unreasonable effort to obtain job related goals, it might mean that she is not qualified for the specific tasks that she is performing, even if she is reaching the goals. Such an inability can become apparent from observations and repeated complaints from the employee. In such a case it might be better to find an employee that can perform the same task with less effort.

The points to keep in mind in regard to the above are as follows. It is much easier to motivate employees to perform tasks that they can do with a reasonable amount of effort. Sometimes problems with motivation are connected to relative deficiencies or weaknesses in job related abilities and skills^{^[49]}. Motivation problems can also be the result of a temperament or personality that is simply inappropriate for the job. When employees are assigned to jobs that are reasonably challenging, but well within their abilities and skills and appropriate for their temperament and personality, they will have to exert less effort to perform the job related tasks. This usually will mean that it will be easier to motivate them to carry out the job related goals.

2) set reasonably challenging goals: Set goals that are precise enough to be clearly perceived or measured when achieved. Setting imprecise goals, such as telling an employee to do your best, or do as much as you can, is less effective, and it might even be counterproductive in some cases. One of the reasons for this is imprecise goals do not represent precise expectations and performance standards. Imprecise goals, such as do your best, can be consciously or unconsciously misinterpreted as do as much as you want to do, or take it easy, or I do not care how little or how much work you do. In addition, imprecise goals can suggest that there will be no penalty for inadequate work performance, and it gives the employee an excellent excuse for a poor work output. The employee can always say I did my best, no matter how inadequate her effort and work performance may have been. When precise goals are set, the implication is that there will be adverse consequences for not obtaining the goals, which can provide the motivation needed to work faster and more precisely. Setting precise goals transmits the message that you care about the production rate and quality. However, there are situations where it is almost impossible, or even inappropriate, or counterproductive to set precise goals. General examples where goal setting might be inappropriate: are when dealing with professionals who are working with unpredictable situations, such as in research, or when dealing with creative people who are highly motivated. In such cases, the employees can set their own goals with consultation with management.

3) try and explain the purpose and ultimate utility of rules, procedures, methods, tasks, sub-goals, and goals: In many work situations the employee is performing tasks that are a part of a larger organizational effort. This can totally disguise the purpose and meaning of the task. The employee might understand what she is supposed to do, but she may not have any idea of the reason or purpose of her work. An extreme example of this can often be found on the assembly line. This can involve an employee soldering wires together in an electronic component, with no knowledge of the ultimate purpose of the component. A similar situation can sometimes be found in the office. This can involve a clerk that is required to follow precise regulations and fill out forms in a certain way, without any understanding of the purpose of the forms or the regulations. Situations of this nature can reduce employee motivation. In extreme cases, the employee might believe part of the work assigned to her, is totally irrational or unnecessary. This can motivate the employee to neglect the work she believes is irrational, when the supervisor is not watching her. A similar situation can happen with safety rules when there is an inadequate understanding of the need for such rules. The solution, is to explain the reason for rules, procedures, methods, tasks, sub-goals, and goals, in terms of a meaningful organizational effort, in a way that the employee can understand. In most situations the better the understanding, the better the work performance will be. In addition, such understanding can increase the quality of the work, because if the employee understands the purpose behind her effort, she is probably more likely to understand the consequences of inadequate work. The understanding might also give her the knowledge to spot defects at an early stage.

4) provide appropriate supervision: Without appropriate supervision there is the risk that employees will not follow rules, and neglect much of their work. Some employees need little supervision and others need a great deal of supervisory observation. However, there should be supervision and related assessment of work performance in almost all cases. If this is neglected, there is a risk that even highly disciplined professional employees will not perform their jobs adequately. Lack of supervision, especially in a large organization, can send the message that nobody cares about the quality or quantity of your work. This raises the question how can appropriate supervision be provided? There are many direct and indirect ways of providing appropriate supervision. A few examples are as follows:

· constant observation by a supervisor or foreman This is a common method, and it can be highly effective.

· unexpected periodic observation The problem with this method, when used alone, is a sizable percentage of employees might not be doing their work in an adequate way. They might be willing to gamble, with the assumption that they are not likely to be caught breaking rules or not working.

· random and unexpected examination of a sample of the product produced by a worker This can be used with many types of products. It can also be useful for certain types of services that result in documentation, such as bookkeeping or accounting. In such a case, a sample of the documentation is examined.

· team members monitoring their own performance This method involves a number of people working together, and supervising their own work. The difficulty with this method is the entire team might decide to work slowly and focus their efforts on idle conversation. Perhaps, it is best if this method is used with other techniques, to avoid this possibility. It is an effective method when used under appropriate conditions with motivated employees.

· video observation of employees Some employees might think this is an invasion of privacy, but this complaint is not really valid if the employees are aware that there is a video monitoring system at the work site.

· computer monitoring of the work performance of employees This technique has much potential. It has been used with office workers, where it is relatively easy to connect office equipment to computer monitoring devices. Unfortunately, the technique can cause excessive stress on employees in some cases. This can probably be minimized by providing adequate breaks, and informing employees that reasonable standards of work performance are expected.

· management by walking around This basically involves a manager walking around and observing and casually talking to people in the work environment.

· a combination of one or more of the above Most of the above techniques are likely to be more functional if they are used in a combination that is appropriate for the specific set of circumstances.

All of these methods can be used in an appropriate or inappropriate way. To much supervision, especially if it is coupled with much criticism, can in some cases be counterproductive or even insulting, and it can cause excessive stress on employees.

5) provide appropriate assistance: Supervision is likely to be tolerated better if employees learn that the manager will directly or indirectly provide assistance for the employees when it is needed, such as in the following situations. When employees are inadvertently given an unreasonable amount of work, or tasks that are exceedingly difficult, assistance should be provided, to reduce the employees burden to reasonable levels. When employees become ill, even if it is only a headache, some assistance should be provided. This can range from a: break, allowing the employee to leave early, providing another employee to do some of the work that the ill employee is having difficulty doing, providing first aid, or calling for professional medical assistance in serious cases. When an employee is confused about an organizational related situation, method, procedure, etc., appropriate explanations should be provided. When an employee is emotionally upset, even if it is not job related, providing a sympathetic ear can be quite beneficial. When employees come to a superior with any type of difficulty, appropriate and sympathetic assistance should be provided. Providing friendly assistance can facilitate good relationships between management and employees. This is likely to increase the motivation of the workers in relation to good job performance.

6) make the work environment as pleasant and rewarding as possible: Try to make it pleasant and easy for the employees to carry out the job related tasks. Try and design jobs so they are mentally stimulating and enjoyable, if possible. Consider the feasibility of expanding the job in such a way, to make it more pleasant and mentally stimulating for the specific employee(s) that you are supervising^{^[50]}. However, it is necessary to keep in mind that expanding a job in a specific way, does not necessarily make it more pleasant or mentally stimulating for a specific employee. What one employee considers an improvement in the job, another employee might consider a worsening of working conditions. That is, the additional tasks associated with expanded jobs are sometimes considered to be an unpleasant burden by employees. Thus, for job expansion to be truly effective, you must discuss the issue with the employees involved to determine what they consider to be an improvement. A temporary trial of the expanded job can help employees and management determine what is an improvement, and what is an unfair burden for employees. An improvement, from the perspective of the employees, will probably involve a reduction in the time spent on conventional job related tasks, when new tasks are assigned.

In some cases, the opposite of job expansion might be appropriate. This can involve a reduction in the number of unpleasant job related tasks and responsibilities. This can be determined by talking to the employees and by experimentation.

7) do not insult or upset employees: An angry or annoyed employee is not likely to be a motivated worker. The negative emotions can also interfere with the work of all who perceive the negative emotional responses. Unfortunately, managers or coworkers can inadvertently insult or upset employees. People often do not like to be supervised, and told what to do, and when to do it. Unfortunately this is often necessary in the organizational setting. Sometimes other employees will mistreat a worker intentionally or inadvertently.

8) provide appropriate feedback: Providing employees with job related feedback can motivate them to work harder, correct inadequacies, and to improve overall work performance. Providing feedback also sends the message that someone cares about the work performance, and that someone is monitoring the quality and quantity of work.

There are two basic types of feedback. One type involves giving positive statements about work performance, such as: That is very good; continue to improve your work performance along these lines. The other type of feedback involves negative statements, such as criticism of poor work performance.

General feedback about overall work performance should be given relatively frequently and periodically throughout the year. Specific feedback about task performance, errors, deviations from rules, should be given immediately, such as soon as an error is noticed.

9) provide appropriate rewards for achieving the goal(s) When employees are given goals and rewarded when they obtain the goals, it is likely to increase their motivation, in most work environments. Rewards can range from a smile, a compliment, a small present, an opportunity to leave work early, a bonus, a promotion, etc. The employee should be informed that she is receiving the reward for achieving a specific goal. Such information will probably facilitate good work performance in the future.

Popular Models and Ideas in Relation to Human Motivation

Abraham Maslow's theory on the hierarchy of needs: One of the most popular models of human motivation is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs. According to this theory there are five categories of needs, which are: 1) physiological, 2) safety, 3) social, 4) esteem, and 5) self-actualization. These need categories form a hierarchy of importance, in terms of a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 sequence. The example, in the following paragraph will clarify this idea.

If an individual is faced with life circumstances that results in unsatisfied physiological needs, the individual will focus her efforts on physiological needs, at the expense of the other needs on the list. If the life circumstances change, and the physiological needs are satisfied, the individual will focus on safety needs. If the life circumstances improve further, and safety is no longer a problem, the individual will focus on social needs. If circumstances improve to the point where the social needs are satisfied, the individual will focus on esteem needs. If esteem needs eventually become satisfied in the person's life, the individual will focus on needs that relate to self-actualization.

The above suggests the question: what precisely do the five classifications mean. This is answered in the following list:

1) The meaning of physiological needs is the same as previously defined, which includes, hunger, thirst, sex, etc.

2) Safety needs include needs that relate to physical and psychological security and safety.

3) Social needs include, needs for acceptance by others, social affiliation, the need to belong to a larger social group, a need for friendships, etc.

4) Esteem needs are essentially desires that relate to self-esteem, such as achievement, autonomy, a positive recognition and attention from others, self-respect, etc.

5) Self-actualization is essentially a need for personal development, which involves developing abilities, becoming educated, personal growth, higher emotional adjustment, and general self-fulfillment.

The above raises the obvious question: does Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory work. That is, does it predict reality? If we think about this question, we can provide answers from our own knowledge and experience. There appears to be a rough tendency for human motivations to more or less follow the pattern suggested by Maslow. To take an extreme example, a person that is deprived of the physiological need to breathe will most likely focus on that need only. If an individual is starving, that person will probably focus all her efforts on obtaining food. It also appears that very poor people, focus on the essentials of life, such as the physiological and safety needs, and they give little attention to esteem and self-actualization. The poor might also focus on social needs, because it facilitates obtaining the physiological and safety needs. If the poor focus on personal development, it will probably be in the form of education to get themselves out of poverty. It also appears, that upper middle class an wealthy people, who have their physiological needs met, focus on the higher needs, such as esteem an self-actualization.

The rough tendency for human motivation to follow the hierarchy of needs theory, is often based on financial necessity. For example, an individual that has her physiological needs deprived is not likely to have the money or energy to invest in the satisfaction of other needs. People that focus on esteem needs and self-actualization, are likely to have the energy and money to pay for all of their needs. Self-actualization, can be expensive, if it involves higher education, personal development workshops, or psychotherapists.

Thus, from the above it does appear that Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory is more or less consistent with reality. However, if we examine our experiences further, we will find that the theory often fails. There are people who focus on one of the needs in the hierarchy in a way that is inconsistent with Maslow's theory. Many of us probably knew some individuals who focused on self-actualization at the expense of all other needs, such as a highly creative individual trying to develop her skills in a specific area of interest. Most of us probably knew a few teenagers or young adults who focused most of their efforts on socializing, at the expense of everything else. Most people more or less focus on a number of needs. For example, a college student might focus equally on social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. This is probably typical of most people in our modern society. People that are highly adjusted will probably focus, more or less, equally on all five need categories.

The above raises the question: what does research suggest about Maslow's theory? The following quote, from Robbins's Organizational Behavior, sums up the general idea that I saw in many of the sources I consulted:

"Maslow's need theory has received wide recognition, particularly among practicing managers. This can be attributed to the theory's intuitive logic and ease of understanding. Unfortunately, however, research does not generally validate the theory. Maslow provided no empirical substantiation, and several studies that sought to validate the theory found no support for it."

The apparent deficiency in Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, is the result of its general nature. Human beings, are highly complex organisms. Each individual has her own unique physiology, psychological makeup, and is generally a member of a specific culture, subculture and society. This simply means each person is different from every other person. It also means that each person has their own personal hierarchy of needs, which is likely to be quite different from the hierarchy Maslow suggested. This idea (a personal hierarchy of needs) was discussed in detail earlier in this chapter.

The ERG theory: Clayton Alderfer attempted to modify Maslow's theory to make it more consistent with research. This modified theoretical perspective consists of only three need categories, which are 1) existence, 2) relatedness, and 3) growth. It is called the ERG theory, based on the first letters of the three need categories. The first category, existence consists of needs that more or less relate to maintaining existence. This includes the physiological and safety needs, earning a living, which involves pay, fringe benefits, and working conditions. The second need category, relatedness consists of social needs and can also include esteem needs that relate to social interactions, such as a desire to interact with others in a way that facilitates self-esteem, a desire to win social acceptance and social status. The last category, growth, is a need for creativity, to make significant contributions to society, and to engage in personal development. This also can involve the esteem related components as it relates to personal development. Another way of looking at this is: successful personal development can facilitate the development of self-esteem. This is essentially equivalent to Maslow's self-actualization couple with some of the intrinsic esteem needs.

The ERG theory is not a rigid step by step absolute hierarchy of needs. It is in a sense a flexible hierarchy, with existence needs being the most basic, followed by, relatedness needs, with growth needs being at the highest level. Its flexible hierarchy allows for the real life situations, where a person can be involved in one, two, or all three need categories. It also states that an individual at a higher need level, can go back to a lower need level under certain circumstances, such as when attempts at obtaining higher order needs are frustrated.

The flexibility of the ERG theory makes it easy to accept as a valid theory. We know from experience that people can switch from one need level to another in an increasing order as outlined in the theory's hierarchy. We also know that people can be working on a number of need levels simultaneously. We also know that people can attempt a higher order growth need, and switch back to a need that is one level lower, if they are frustrated.

Not surprisingly, the ERG theory has significantly more support (including some scientific studies) than Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The following quote from Robbins's Organizational Behavior is typical:

"ERG theory is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among people. Variables such as education, family background, and cultural environment can alter the importance or driving force that a group of needs holds for a particular individual. The evidence demonstrating that people in other cultures rank the need categories differently--for instance, natives of Spain and Japan place social needs before their physiological requirements--would be consistent with the ERG theory. Several studies have supported the ERG theory, but there is also evidence that it doesn't work in some organizations. Overall, however, ERG theory represents a more valid version of the need hierarchy."

In spite of the fact that the ERG theory has some scientific support, the theory's structure suggests some deficiencies. Human beings, are unique individuals, and they do not follow any specific pattern, and even the flexible hierarchy will probably fail in many individual cases. This is apparent from the next to the last sentence in the above quote. ("...there is also evidence that it doesn't work in some organizations.") There might be some statistical support for certain patterns, but this does not mean that the theory is precise enough to predict the behavior of individual employees or human beings in a truly accurate and practical way. However, as an approximation tool, of human motivation, the ERG theory is probably a useful device in many situations.

McClelland's theory of needs: This theory is based on three needs, which are achievement, power, and affiliation. These needs are described in the following list:

· The need for achievement, is a desire to perform or create in a way that is superior to the standards maintained by other people. Individuals that are high in this need invest a considerable amount of effort to obtain success. Individuals in this category, prefer situations where they have challenging goals that are realistic. They may dislike very easy or extremely difficult goals. They prefer situations where they can get immediate feedback in relation to their performance. Individuals in this category appear to be excellent employees for many challenging jobs, such as occupations involving the selling of expensive items.

· The need for power is a desire to control, manipulate people, and make them behave in a predetermined or desired way. Individuals that are high in this trait prefer situations where they have the opportunity to influence people, and they like to be in charge. They like status positions, and prefer competition. Individuals in this category might be good managers in some situations, but they might focus much of their efforts at satisfying their power need, at the expense of good performance.

· The need for affiliation is a desire to interact with others in a friendly way, and a desire to form close relationships. Individuals that have high affiliation needs prefer cooperation to competition. They like to work in situations where they have the opportunity to create relationships with others. Individuals high in affiliation needs will probably be good employees in any job that requires friendliness and understanding. However, some individuals in this category might focus on friendly socializing at the expense of job performance.

The very structure of McClelland's theory of needs makes it a realistic and potentially valuable tool. The theory does not contain any unreasonable assumptions about human nature. It simply suggests that there are people who have high levels of either achievement, power, or affiliation. Not surprisingly, the theory does have some empirical support.

Perhaps it might be interesting to point out, that most people probably have a mixture of the three needs, achievement, power, and affiliation. With some individuals, the relative degree of manifestation of these needs might depend on the environmental conditions they are faced with. The following examples will clarify this idea. An individual that gets a high sales commission to sell items that are very expensive, in a highly competitive environment, might display a high achievement motive. This can be the result of the required behaviors associated with the job, which is facilitated by the high commission. An individual that is placed in a situation where she is in a supervisory position, will need to use various types of power to perform her job, which will involve controlling other people. An individual that is in a political occupation, where she must win votes in a competitive election, will have great affiliation needs, as a result of the very nature of the job. That is, a politician that is friendly to voters, other politicians, and people with money and power, will probably have a much better chance of remaining in office than an unfriendly politician.

Conclusion And Problem Solving Questions

From the above paragraphs it is probably apparent that human motivation is extremely complex. The motivations of employees, or the people you are interacting with can be in conflict with your needs or the needs of your organization. Thus, many problems can manifest in relation to human motivations. The following questions can be used in the creative sense to solve problems related to human motivation:

· What is the nature of the motivational problem that you are dealing with? Are you sure that there are not other factors involved besides motivation?

· What type of motivation(s) relates to the problem you are working on? Are there any physiological, secondary, and/or complex motivations involved with your problem? What are all the possible ways of correcting the problem(s)?

· What are the secondary, and complex needs of the individuals you are dealing with? What is the personal hierarchy of needs of the individual(s) you are working with? What culture and social class are the employees you are working with from, and what intrinsic and extrinsic rewards do they value? How can you use this information to provide appropriate job incentives?

· What are the needs of your employees? What are the needs of your customers? What are the needs of your organization? What are your needs?

· Do you understand the individuals you are, supervising (or working with, or interacting with) in terms of their needs, and goals? What questions can you ask them to obtain more information?

· Will negative or positive feedback directed at the employees help solve the problem you are working on? Have you been giving accurate and useful feedback to the relevant individuals?

· Did you inadvertently create the motivational problems in the employees (or the people you are dealing with) by inadvertently transmitting the wrong message? If this is a possibility, how can you correct it? Can you set precise goals that will alleviate the motivational problem?

· Can you delineate your current life situation in terms of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs? What need level are you at currently? What are the needs that you focus most of your efforts on? Can you delineate the needs of your employees (or the people you are interacting with) in terms of Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs? What needs do they focus on? Can you answer the above questions in terms of the ERG theory?

· In terms of McClelland's theory of needs, how significant are your needs for: achievement, power, and affiliation? Can you answer the above question in relation to your employees (or the people you are interacting with)?

Chapter 14: Miscellaneous Ideas on Management and Organizational Theory

Left click on these words to hear a sound file of this chapter.

Miscellaneous

There are many important ideas in management and organizational theory that have not been discussed in the previous pages, because of space limitations. Some of these, neglected ideas will be briefly discussed in this chapter as follows.

The 360-Degree Appraisal System

The 360-degree appraisal system is a method of obtaining performance related feedback from a number of sources, such as from superiors, colleagues, subordinates, and customers. This method of evaluation is more useful than obtaining information from one source because, people will evaluate performance of an individual from a very different perspective as a result of their role, prejudices, their values, their knowledge, their personal experiences with the individual, etc.

The 360-degree appraisal system has some potential application in the personal life of the individual. That is, an individual can obtain a picture of himself by seeking evaluations from: parents, instructors, friends, spouse, girlfriend, boyfriend, etc.

In actual practice you can probably obtain a good estimate of what people think of you, including superiors and subordinates in the work environment, by asking yourself the following questions: What does X think of my performance? How does X feel about me? What areas would X recommend that I improve? These questions will bring to mind the subtle feedback you already obtained as a result of interacting with the people in your personal and work environments.

Computer Technology

Computer technology developed in a series of stages, which are: first-generation computers 1951-1958, second-generation computers 1959-1963, third-generation computers 1964-1970, fourth-generation computers 1971-1989, fifth-generation computers 1990-to the present. This developmental sequence had a progressively increasing impact on organizations, and is described in the following paragraphs.

Computer technology started with vacuum tube computers, which had drum memories that were slow and limited in storage capability. The impact on organizations started in 1951, when Remington Rand introduced a computer of this type, called the Univac I. There were experimental computers before the introduction of this vacuum tube computer, but the Univac I was the first commercially available computer. The Census Bureau, and General Electric purchased the first model of the Univac. International Business Machines introduced a more popular model, IBM 650, in 1955. Similar vacuum tube computers were marketed to business and government until 1958. These first-generation computers were very difficult to use and extremely expensive. They were generally programmed with a primitive programming procedure, called machine code, which made writing programs extremely difficult. However, there were new higher level programming languages under development in this period, which theoretically could have been used with these early computers. These computers were gigantic, they produced a considerable amount of heat, broke down frequently, because they used vacuum tubes.

To remedy the difficulties associated with vacuum tubes, the second-generation computers, which contained many individual transistors, were introduced in 1959 to 1963. These computers were much smaller, less expensive, faster, had a better type of memory, (called magnetic core memory) and could be programmed with the newly developed high-level programming languages. These computers were reliable, and produced much less heat because of the use of transistors instead of vacuum tubes. However, most of these computers were still extremely expensive, with prices ranging to over a million dollars. The first relatively low priced computer, in this general category was introduced by Digital Equipment corporation, in 1960 and it cost approximately $120,000. Computers of this type were called minicomputers, and their low price made computer purchase desirable for less wealthy and smaller organizations.

The third-generation computers were introduced 1964 to 1970, and they used integrated circuits. Each integrated circuit contained many tiny transistors etched onto a silicon chip. This reduced the size and cost of computers significantly. The silicon chip also increased the speed and reduced the heat problem that was present in the earlier computers. In addition to the integrated circuits, these computers had a better memory system, which involved semiconductor memories and magnetic disk storage. These computers were introduced by IBM and other companies. All the IBM models in this category were called System/360. Some of the System/360 models were relatively small and inexpensive and others were large, powerful and costly. All the Systems/360 models were compatible in relation to programming. That is, a program written for one of these IBM models would run on any System/360. This idea of compatibility was followed by other companies, and today we take it for granted that software will run on many different models and brands of computers.

The fourth-generation, involved a number of technological advances that were introduced between 1971 to 1989. The primary advancement of this period was in the development of silicon chips that had a huge number of transistors etched onto a single slab of silicon. It was possible to create an entire microprocessor with a single piece of silicon. This made it possible to create microcomputers, which were first introduced in the mid-70s. These are the personal computers that are reasonable enough for small companies and individuals to buy. The first microcomputer designed for personal use was introduced into the market in kit form, for hobbyists, by Altair, in 1975. The Apple I was introduced shortly after, which was followed by the Apple II in 1977. IBM also started to produce personal computers in 1981. These computers, with appropriate software, were good word processors, and suitable for mathematical calculations. However, these personal computers had limitations, which were the result of inadequacies in hardware and software. One of the major limitation related to the use of random access memory (RAM). That is, most of these computers could not handle much RAM, and if you found one that could, you still had a memory problem, which might be less severe. The reason for this is the DOS operating system required to run most software on personal computers, had a memory limitation of 640 kilobytes.* This problem with memory limitations was eventually solved in the fifth computer generation with the introduction of Windows 95, 98, and Windows NT. This newer software has a memory capability that greatly exceeds the current need for random access memory in personal computers.

*NOTE (The following note is somewhat technical, but if the reader has a background in computer technology, it will be understandable.

The limitation of the DOS system was the result of its 16-bit configuration, which was designed for the first personal computers on the market. These computers were 16-bit computers and could not handle much random access memory. 16-Bit means, in effect, that it has the random access memory capability of 2¹⁶=65536 bytes (640 kilobytes). In the actual situation it was less than this number because some of this memory was allocated for device drivers. When the 32-bit computers were introduced the old DOS operating system was still 16-bit, which more or less limited the computer to the same 65536 bytes (640 kilobytes) of conventional memory. Software developers tried to create special memory manager programs, and extended memory programs, that would allow the utilization of more random access memory in the new 32-bit computers. However, this type of software did not work very well. What was needed was a 32-bit operating system to function on the 32-bit computers. Windows 95, 98 and Windows NT were operating systems that solved the problem, because these operating systems are 32-bit. This means that the theoretical amount of memory that can be handled efficiently is 2³²=4,294,967,296 bytes (4 gigabytes). Actually about half of this memory capability would be available for applications. However, even the best and most expensive personal computers can only handle, to date, approximately 377,487,360 bytes (360 megabytes) of physical memory. Thus, the new operating systems do not restrict the memory capability of the computer. The huge memory handling capacity of Windows 95, 98, and Windows NT allows modern personal computers to run many programs simultaneously, without any difficulties, which is similar to the capability of a mainframe computer. Of course, to do this you must have an adequate amount of physical memory installed in the computer circuitry.) END OF NOTE

The fifth generation computers represent technological developments from 1990 to the present. These computers have some of the capabilities of human beings, as a result of the advancements in silicon chips, random access memory, video and sound circuitry, and software design. These computers, with appropriate software and hardware can: read text, which is verbalized in a computer generated synthetic voice; translate human speech into type written text; can follow verbal commands to perform computer related tasks, such as printing a page in response to a verbal request; can translate human handwriting into type written text; can type (scan) information from conventional books directly into the computer; can mimic the reasoning of experts; and can control highly sophisticated machines. In addition, these computers can be used to play or create video, can record and play sound like a stereophonic tape recorder. The computers can also be used as a communication device, with spoken language, graphics, motion video, or written text, through conventional telephone lines, or through direct computer wiring connections. With the fifth generation computers it is relatively easy to send a fax directly from a word processing program. The computer, if properly programmed, will automatically dial several numbers in succession and transmit the same fax to each number.

Fifth generation computers are much less expensive than the earlier computers. It is possible to obtain a personal computer that can perform all of the operations mentioned above for under $1500. It was possible to obtain a fourth generation minicomputer that could perform many of the above functions, but such a computer would cost at least $100,000. The latest fifth generation computers are actually more powerful than the early minicomputers and even the early mainframe computers, which were priced in the millions.

The personal computers, from the fifth generation, can operate several programs simultaneously, with Windows NT, 95, or 98 and some other software packages. This capability is called multitasking, and it is a capability that was only associated with mainframe computers in the past.

As a result of the above developments, computer technology is a part of many jobs in the modern organization. Secretaries, engineers, architects, graphic artists, writers, executives, managers, can spend much of their working hours at the computer. Computers can monitor their work, and identify employees that are not performing adequately. As a result of the new technology, many employees can be managed with less managerial personnel.

Perhaps the key to success, in modern times, is to learn how to do your job skillfully with a computer. This generally includes writing and communicating with a computer. For example, engineers are expected to have expertise with the use of computer aided design programs (CAD programs), secretaries are expected to know how to use word processing programs, graphic artists are expected to know how to use drawing programs, and managers should know how to communicate, find information, and write with a computer.

In the future managers and other employees might be expected to complete their written work without the assistance of a secretary, even if the employees cannot type. The new software, generally called speech-to-text, can convert spoken words directly into text. This software is produced by Dragon (NaturallySpeaking Preferred, which cost $180), IBM (Via Voice Executive 98 cost about $150), and other companies. The user dictates directly into a microphone connected to the computer, and the words are automatically typed by the computer into a word processing program. The above software, NaturallySpeaking Preferred, and Via Voice Executive 98, can even read back the document in a computer generated voice, to aid in proofreading. This technology can eliminate the need for conventional dictation devices, and it might also reduce the need for secretaries and proofreaders.

Management by Objective

What is management by objective? The basic concept of this management strategy can be seen in the following definitions:

1) "(MBO) a systematic approach that allows management to focus on achievable goals and to attain the best possible results from available resources" Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) p 450.

2) "An approach that emphasizes the development of objectives (goals) for organizational units and individual employees and the review of performance against those objectives." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 181.

3) "The system in which managers and subordinates jointly set objectives to use as the basis for operating the business and evaluating performance." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p G7.

4) "A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress." Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) p 252.

These definitions provide the basic idea of management by objective, but they do not provide enough explanatory detail. Thus, I am defining and explaining the concept in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Management by objective is a management methodology that involves cooperatively setting a set of goals that relate to the organizational objectives. The goals are set, with a clearly delineated time limit, for organizational divisions, departments and employees. This is ideally done in such a way that if the employees achieve their goals, their department will achieve its goals, and if the department achieves its goals the division will achieve its goals, which will contribute to the organizational objectives. If all the organizational divisions achieve their goals, the organization will achieve its objectives. This involves the following sequence of cooperative goal setting. The goals set for each division relates to the organizational objective. Goals set for a department relate to the goals set by its division. Goals set with employees relate to the goals of their department. (Of course, with very small organizations, which do not have any divisions or departments, the employee’s goals should relate directly to the organizational objectives.)

The goals are set cooperatively and jointly by superiors and subordinates. This is done, or should be done, with the understanding that the superior will evaluate the performance and give feedback to the subordinate. The feedback should be provided while the efforts to obtain the goal are in progress. This gives the subordinate an opportunity to correct his behavior or work performance, if it is inadequate. Thus, early and continuous or periodic feedback can help subordinates prevent failure.

The goals that are set with management by objective are precise, measurable and relate to a tangible result. Imprecise goals or goals that cannot be evaluated or measured are avoided, such as: Do your best. Try to be more careful. Try to work a little faster. Try not to make so many errors. An example of an appropriate goal, for management by objective, would be for an organization to increase its productivity ten percent in one year, without additional employees or equipment, as measured by the number of completed items coming off the assembly line*. This organizational objective would be broken down into a series of related goals for each division, department and employee. Each employee might have to increase his productivity by a certain percentage. Employees that were not working very diligently might be encouraged to agree to increase their productivity by significantly more than ten percent. Employees that were already highly productive might increase their productivity by a smaller amount (less than ten percent), because they are probably already working near their maximum capacity.

*NOTE (Perhaps a goal of increasing productivity by ten percent could be achieved by eliminating or reducing the number of unauthorized breaks and excessively slow work rates, which is a common problem in many organizations.) END OF NOTE

The goals that are set with management by objective, can be placed in three categories, which are routine, innovative, and improvement^{^[51]} Routine goals are objectives that are generally part of the job, and usually must be repeated periodically. Such goals are not unusual or innovative. Innovative goals relate to innovation or creativity, such as the creation of a new product. Improvement goals relate to improving an entity, such as improving your work performance, improving productivity, improving interpersonal communications in the work environment, etc.

Routine goals are probably the easiest to achieve, within a predetermined time limit, because there is generally no mystery on how to obtain such goals. If we are not sure how to obtain a routine goal, we can easily obtain the information, such as by asking an experienced person to instruct us. With innovative goals the situation is very different. We simply may not know how to obtain the goal. Often innovative goals require extensive experimentation and an unpredictable amount of financial resources and time. Thus, innovative goals can be difficult to complete within a predetermined time limit, because there can be many unforeseen difficulties involved. Improvement goals can also be difficult to obtain within a predetermined time limit in some cases. This is especially true if the improvement involves human behavior, such as improving work performance. If the improvement is focused on a non-human entity, such as machinery, an office, a factory, than the situation is more predictable. Such improvement goals can often be completed within a predicted time period.

Goals that are set between superior and subordinate can be put in written form, which is called a performance contract. The performance contract states the responsibilities of the subordinate's job and related goals. It can, and should, indicate how the goals and related performance will be evaluated. The performance contract should also indicate the relevant time limits, in relation to obtaining the goals. The contract should also indicate rewards for obtaining the goals, and the consequences of failure. The performance contract, and the stated time limits, will probably work well with most routine goals. It will probably also work quite well with improvement goals that involve non-human entities. However, innovative goals, and improvement goals that involve human behavior, as stated above, have an unpredictable quality. It can be difficult or impossible to predict the precise time and resource requirements or final results when attempting such goals. This unpredictability should be kept in mind when creating a performance contract.

When goals are achieved, rewards should be provided by management or the superior. This can involve prays, money, additional time off, an opportunity for job advancement, etc. Rewards in the form of praise should be provided before the goal is obtained, if the employee is doing very good work that will obviously lead to the attainment of the goal.

The basic idea behind management by objective can be applied to the personal life of an individual. That is, setting precise goals that can be measured, with appropriate time limitations, can be an effective way of improving performance and achievements in many areas of life, including academic performance.

The disadvantages to management by objective include all of the following. It is not always feasible to set precise goals that can be measured, especially if the goals have time limits. Precise goal setting with time limitations is often not feasible: for experimental research, for situations that are unpredictable, for jobs that involve creativity and/or trial and error. Applying measurable goals in some job related situations can be counterproductive to organizational objectives. For example, if you measure the performance of human resource personnel by the number of interviews they carry out in a week, the result might be many poor or useless interviews quickly performed, in an effort to meet the goal.

However, if management by objective is applied to the right situation and used in a proper way, it can be a highly effective method. It delineates precise requirements, the goals, in a cooperative way. Management by objective serves to communicate what is wanted and expected from employees. Its cooperative nature also serves a communication purpose, which can provide management information from employees, in relation to their limitations, capabilities, and their inclination to work at a certain pace or certain way.

Manufacturing a Product

Before a product is marketed, it must be created. This process is not exactly the same for all products, all industries, and all companies. However, a basic process of manufacturing, which does not apply to all situations, can be represented in nine steps, as follows:

1) A need is identified in terms of a problem. This can happen as a result of market research or a common sense assessment of human desires. Sometimes, the actual desire for a product is created by advertising after the product is placed on the market. For example, nobody really seemed to need a large screen colored television set, until it was invented and advertised. This is the case with many of the modern electronic devices that are used primarily for entertainment. Certain electronic devices, such as computers, dealt with needs that existed before the device was marketed. For example, the needs to perform calculations, type, edit, and file documents, existed before there were computers, but the old methods were less efficient than computer methods.

2) Experimental research and/or preliminary engineering is applied to the problem. This can in some cases involve an assessment to determine if the product could be manufactured and marketed at reasonable cost.

3) The product is designed by one or more engineers. With modern products, this step usually requires a team of engineers. With very complicated products, it can involve a number of engineering teams working on different components of the product.

4) A prototype of the product is built based on the engineering diagrams created in step three. Then it is tested and evaluated. This might lead to additional work for the engineers, in terms of modifying the prototype.

6) Based on the testing of the prototype, additional engineering designs are created. This can involve the creation of more prototypes in some cases, or the final design of the product.

7) The factory where the product will be produced, is set up with appropriate equipment and personnel to make the product. This can be an extremely involved and expensive engineering and management project for complex products that are mass-produced, such as automobiles, refrigerators, or other major appliances.

Some products are not mass produced. They may be created in relatively small quantities, based on the number of orders, such as large airplanes. Production of certain items requires creating only one product, such as large ships, space satellites, skyscrapers. In such cases, the setup is generally less complicated than it would be to mass-produce the same product. However, usually much elaborate equipment and highly skilled personnel are required to billed non-mass produced products.

8) After the production facility is set up the product is manufactured. The production facility might be carefully monitored, especially in the early days of its operation, to detect deficiencies in its design. If any deficiencies are detected modifications may be applied to the facility, to correct the problem.

9) The product is marketed. In some cases the marketing of the product begins before the product is created, such as with one of a kind items that are made to order, such as large ships. The basics of the marketing process is discussed in more detail under the next heading.

Marketing

Organizations, generally produce one or more products or services, which have to be marketed by some means. Marketing any type of product, providing any type service, starts with an understanding of the needs of the consumer. The question that must be answered is: what are the needs, or potential needs, of the consumer? How can the product we are trying to sell satisfy the needs, or potential needs, of the consumer?

The way a product is marketed depends on the product and how it is produced. If it is a one of a kind product, which is usually built to order, such as a large ship, the customer is generally obtained before the product is built. In some cases, preliminary engineering diagrams and/or scale models might be created, to persuade the potential customer to order the product from the specific company. This can also involve an estimated or actual price to produce the product. This procedure can involve competition, including competitive bidding, from other companies, who also have the expertise and facilities to build the product.

Products that are sold in relatively small quantities, such as large passenger planes, might be created in very small quantities, for testing, demonstration and marketing purposes. When customer orders are obtained additional units may be built to fill their orders.

The companies that build very expensive non-mass produced products, such as large ships, or airplanes, have very few customers. Thus, it is relatively easy to contact and communicate with these customers, by conventional methods, such as personal correspondence, telephone calls, and face to face discussions. Organizations that create mass produced products have a very different type of challenge. They have to contact thousands, millions, or even hundreds of millions of potential customers.

The marketing of mass-produced products can be a very involved and expensive procedure. This can be summarized in five steps, which are delineated under the five numbered headings that follow.

1) A need, or potential need*, is identified that is believed to be common to many thousands, hundreds of thousands, or millions of people. Identifying a major need, or potential need, is not adequate for mass production and mass marketing. The need, or potential need, must involve a very large number of potential customers. If the item is relatively expensive, such as luxury automobiles, the number of potential customers can be in the thousands. However, if the item is less expensive, the numbers generally must be in the hundreds of thousands or millions, to justify mass production and mass marketing.

*NOTE (The words potential need was used because the actual need is sometimes created, with advertising after the product has been put on the market.)

2) In an effort to delineate a reasonable number of consumers that will need the mass produced product, the potential consumers might be delineated in terms of market segments. This can involve categories such as age, sex, ethnic background, geographic location, income level, level of education. It can also involve more precise characteristics of the potential customers, such as their interests, hobbies, and personal needs, as based on their previous purchases of goods and services. For example, an American manufacturer of instructional mathematics software will be interested in students who own computers, in English speaking parts of the world. Incidentally, this market can be substantially expanded by producing the mathematics programs in different languages, and marketing it throughout the world. The manufacturer might also be interested in selling the mathematics software to other market segments, such as engineers, and similar professionals, who may have forgotten certain aspects of advanced mathematics. Another example is a manufacturer of electric shavers. Such a company would be ultimately selling to adult males, who live in the United States, Canada, Europe, and other parts of the world. This is a fairly large market, but it can be substantially expanded, if the manufacturer also makes a version of the electric raiser for women, such as to shave legs and arms.

In general, the questions to consider in the marketing process are: What are the market segments that will be interested in the product? How can the market be expanded? Can the market be expanded by modifying the product or by making a different version of it?

3) Based on the market segments derived in step two, the company might engage in market research, to determine if the need, or potential need, for the product exists. Such research can also reveal the true needs of the consumer. This research can also involve test marketing of the product in representative geographical areas.

4) The next step is to develop distribution channels for the product. This involves creating a plan that delineates the method of distributing and selling the product. For example, a product can be sold by selling it to a wholesaler, who will sell it to a retailer, who will sell it to the consumer. Another method, is to sell the product directly to the consumer by mail order. And still another method is to have salesmen selling the product directly to retailers, who will sell it to the consumer. Of course, there are many other channels of distribution for a product.

A primary consideration, is how to transport the product through the distribution channels. If the product is not perishable and is not extremely large, it might be shipped by mail, UPS, or a similar company. If the product is very large and bulky, such as large pieces of furniture, the most feasible way of shipping it might be by contracting with a trucking company. If the product is perishable and requires refrigeration, such as ice cream, it might have to be delivered in company owned refrigeration trucks.

5) The product has to be advertised. The exact type and methods of advertising will depend on the product, the relevant market segments, and the distribution channels. For example, if a manufacturer is selling electric shavers through wholesalers, the company may have to persuade the wholesaler to purchase the product. The manufacturer might also have to persuade the retailer to buy the product from the wholesaler, and the manufacturer will have to persuade the ultimate consumer to buy the product from the retailer. Thus, three different advertising methods might have to be used in the above example, one for the wholesaler, one for the retailer, and one for the consumer.

Prejudice In Relation to Organizations and Management

The traditional organizational structure tended to unfairly discriminate against women, minority groups, homosexuals, people over 40 years of age, the handicapped, and almost anyone that was a little different from the image believed to be proper by management. However, this traditional structure offered specifically defined jobs for each group. There were jobs for women, (such as secretary, receptionist, nurse, elementary school teacher) jobs for minorities, (janitor, handyman, security guard, etc.) and jobs for white males, (executive, manager, salesman, etc.). A woman or minority applying for an executive position did not have much of a chance of getting the job no matter how qualified the applicant was. A homosexual had a better chance than a woman or minority, if he was white and he totally concealed his sexual orientation. A white male would most likely experience unfair discrimination if he applied for a job that was traditionally filled by a woman, such as a secretary.

The discrimination did not start in business organizations, it started in infancy within the family, and it continued as the child developed, within the community and school system. Females were socialized and educated to do jobs that were erroneously believed to be feminine (nurse, beautician, secretary, housekeeper, etc.). Males were socialized to take occupations that were considered masculine (law-enforcement officer, soldier, lawyer, physician, etc.). Minorities, had less money, less educational opportunities, and were often socialized into unskilled or semiskilled occupational roles, such as a janitor.

Of course, the prejudicial system was not an absolute. It was a set of norms that influenced behavior of most people, but there were individuals that were not influenced. Thus, there were a relatively small number of people who were performing occupations that contradicted the stereotype, such as women doctors, executives from minority groups, etc. These exceptions should have convinced society that their prejudicial assumptions were incorrect. However, most people interpreted the exceptions as unusual people with special abilities, which allowed society to maintain its prejudicial assumptions.

Although the prejudicial system was obviously unfair and highly discriminatory, it was not based on hatred. It was based on ignorance. Hatred would appear when someone tried to violate the norms of the prejudicial system in an opened or highly public way. Most people, white and minorities, males and females, believed that there were proper roles for different types of people. This belief was based on erroneous assumptions about the potential abilities, of white males, minorities, and women. Males were believed to have greater intellectual and leadership abilities. It was believed that women had superior nurturing abilities especially with children. Minorities were thought to be less intelligent, but capable of working with their hands, at unskilled, semiskilled work, or even in a skilled trade in some cases. Handicapped people were believed to be unnecessary burdens that should be avoided.

The discriminatory beliefs became a self-fulfilling prophecy. That is, people were socialized and educated according to the erroneous beliefs, which limited their actualized abilities in such a way as to support the prejudicial stereotypes.

The above situation started to change in the early 60s, partly as a result of the efforts of Dr. Martin Luther King and his followers. This was followed by many other civil rights movements, for black people, for women, for homosexuals, etc. People throughout the United States became more aware of the discriminatory system that they were living under. The 1964 federal Civil Rights Act greatly stimulated the changes that were taking place, by making it illegal to discriminate based on race, color, religion, national origin, or gender. This law was followed by a number of antidiscrimination laws, including the following: the Age discrimination in Employment Act of 1967; the Equal employment Opportunity Act of 1972; the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978; the Civil rights Act of 1991; the Americans with Disabilities act of 1990.

Human Resource Management

What is Human resource management? The following definitions provide a basic delineation of the concept:

1) "The term generally applied to those activities concerning the management of people." Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) p 449.

2) "The philosophies, policies, programs, practices, and decisions that affect the people who work for an organization." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 366.

I will define an explain the term in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Human resource management is a managerial perspective, or philosophy, that focuses on the management of employees, with the assumption that human beings are valuable resources. In the simplest sense human resource management is the management of employees, as opposed to the management of physical entities, money, or data. In a more complex sense it is a philosophy, which is elegantly expressed by Montana & Charnov (pp 278-279) as follows:

"Human Resource Management

Beginning in the 1970s, a newer approach to managing employees developed. Today's effective managers regard their employees as important resources--"human resources"--having a great deal of untapped potential. Under human resource management, the manager's job is to create an environment in which employees can unleash their considerable potential and use it for the good of both the organization and themselves. Instead of trying to structure jobs rigidly and monitor employees' behavior closely (as under scientific management) or trying to make employees feel that they are all part of one big, happy family (early behavioral management), the human resource approach recognizes the importance of people to organizational performance and seeks to provide them with the opportunity to develop their full potential. Today this takes such forms as employee involvement and empowerment. It is estimated that 50 to 60 percent of large U.S. corporations now use quality circles, problem-solving groups, and other ways to get employee suggestions. Another 5 to 10 percent have work teams that allow the workers themselves to make decisions about hiring, firing, and pay."

The quotation of Montana & Charnov, describes human resource management in terms that can be classified as a theory Y management philosophy^{^[52]}, or a humanistic perspective. That is, human resource management, as described in the above paragraph is humanistic perspective of management.

Whether you consider human resource management in the simple sense, of managing people, (as opposed to managing material entities, machines, energy, data, money) or in the philosophical sense, it involves all of the following:

· writing job descriptions

· recruiting and selecting new employees

· interviewing potential employees

· evaluating potential employees

· selecting potential employees

· socializing employees in relation to the organizational culture

· training employees

· motivating employees

· leading employees

· supervising employees

· dealing with the problems of employees

· evaluating employee performance

· rewarding employees for good work

· taking action, and supervising, to prevent or eliminate unfair discrimination

· punishing employees for breaking rules or deliberately working in an inadequate way

· firing unsuitable employees

Scientific Management

What is scientific management? The following definitions will provide a basic idea of what this concept means:

1) "A traditional management system that focuses on individual worker-machine relationships in manufacturing plants." Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) p 45.

2) "An approach started around 1900 that used engineering techniques such as time-and-motion analysis to increase plant efficiency by establishing the one best method for each task." Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) p 276.

I will define and explain scientific management in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Scientific management is a methodology that consists of the application of scientific evaluation to increase work efficiency. This methodology was originally introduced by Frederick W. Taylor, an engineer, in his book Principles of Scientific management, in 1911. The method was primarily focused on factory workers, such as laborers loading pig iron, workers shoveling materials of varying weights. Taylor focused on time-and-motion studies of the workers. This involved analyzing each movement the workers made in their job, with an attempt to eliminate unnecessary and/or inefficient movements. Taylor tried to simplify jobs and increase work efficiency. He tried to determine optimum load levels for manual labor, such as the most efficient weight and shovel size for each type of material. The ultimate goal was to find the one-best-way to perform each of the tasks making up a job. Basically Taylor's technique can be summarized as:

1) carefully observe and study the job, in terms of efficiency or time-and-motion, with the goal of delineating the one-best-method of doing the job. The idea behind this step is most jobs were performed by workers in an inefficient manner. The workers performed their job based on their own uneducated judgment, which Taylor perceived to be inadequate. Taylor would attempt to find a highly efficient way of doing a job, which he called the one-best-method.

2) carefully select each worker for a job in terms of their abilities to perform the required tasks and movements in an efficient and effective way Workers that have deficiencies or weaknesses that might interfere with the job should be excluded. Such workers might be able to perform the job, but they will be difficult to motivate and they will produce a lower than desired output.

3) train each worker in the one-best-method to perform their job The one-best-method was determined by scientific study of the job, in terms of precise movements and procedures, which the workers were required to learn.

4) maintain a cooperative atmosphere, including higher wages, to encourage workers to perform the job, according to the methods and rules that relate to the one-best-method of doing the job This includes making the association between productivity of the workers and increased financial reward for their efforts.

5) management and the employees are to take appropriate responsibility and apply appropriate efforts for the portion of the work that they do best. That is, the job and responsibilities of management, as Taylor perceived it, were to train the employees precisely how to do their job in terms of the one-best-method, and closely supervise them to be certain that they did their job according to the one-best-method. The responsibilities of the workers were to learn their job, and do it, according to the one-best-method, and to follow the rules and orders of management.

In situations where Taylor's method of scientific management was applied there was usually a great increase in work efficiency, which often resulted in more than 200 percent increase in work output. Thus, Taylor's basic premises were correct, at least for the uneducated manual laborers he was supervising.

Taylor's scientific management tended to result in a theory X management style. Perhaps this was functional for the situation that existed with unskilled laborers in the late 1800s and early 1900s. However, workers often do not like a theory X management style. They do not like to be constantly supervised. They do not like to have someone tell them precisely how to do their jobs, which can convey the message to the worker that he is a machine without any intelligence or creativity. They do not like someone else to pace their work, which can limit rest breaks. They do not like to work to the near maximum levels often required by Taylor's scientific management. They want more than financial rewards for their work. Taylor's style of management, would offer a moderate increase in salary, such as from a $1.15 per day to a $1.85 a day for increasing the work output by two or three times^{^[53]}. Workers often want mental stimulation, prestige, a feeling of accomplishment, and many other intrinsic rewards from their work. Taylor's scientific management only offered boredom, fatigue, and a modest increase in wages.

Taylor's scientific management and similar techniques are elegantly criticized in Industrial/Organizational Psychology by Saal & Knight, as follows:

"There is little question that jobs designed on the basis of scientific management and bureaucratic principles are more efficient in terms of the time spent to perform specific tasks, and that these approaches resulted in economic savings for the companies that used them. However, these savings were typically short-lived because simplification and standardization have negative long-term side effects (such as monotony and boredom) that can in turn have a negative impact on workers' attitudes (Dunham, 1979). As we saw in Chapter 9, negative attitudes toward work and low job satisfaction may be related to withdrawal behaviors such as absenteeism and turnover, which are usually costly for companies."

The problem with scientific management, especially Taylor's early delineation of scientific management, is it is primarily focused on physics in terms of the physical movements involved with work. It neglects the psychological, sociological, and physiological components of work. That is, the many components that are involved with work fall into four categories, which are physics, physiology, psychology, and sociology. Taylor focused most of his efforts on physics at the expense of the other components. This suggests some insight and a solution. Specifically, scientific management, can, and should, be based on physics, physiology, psychology, and sociology. This means it is necessary to use a multidisciplinary scientific approach to the study of jobs and employees, which include all four factor categories mentioned above. I will call this multidisciplinary scientific management, to distinguish it from Taylor's style of management. This concept is briefly discussed in the following paragraphs, which contains a numbered heading for each of the disciplines.^{^[54]}

1) The physics involved with the work: Taylor considered and applied this component well. The physics involves the movements and expenditure of time and energy. This should be reduced to a minimum, providing it does not interfere with the physiological, psychological and sociological components.

A modern technique that is sometimes used to study the physics of work, and increase work efficiency, is motion video or motion picture film. This technique allows the studying of each movement associated with a task, by slowing up the film to study each movement.

Physics is relevant to both physical and mental work. This becomes apparent if you study a person working at a computer. Improper hand movements working the keyboard can waste time, and cause injury to the arm*. Improper posture can also waste time and cause injury. Anybody working at a desk or workshop bench, can waste time, movements, and energy, if the work area is not properly configured. All the documents, tools, materials, personnel, should be available at the worksite without excessive or distracting movements.

Note, as you read through this text, it will become apparent that physical components overlap and impact on the physiological components, and the physiological components overlap and impact on the psychological components and the psychological components can overlap and impact on the sociological components, and vice versa. Actually, all the components overlap and impact on each other to some degree, because human beings and their relationship with the work they are doing comprise a system. The general tendency is any single component of a system will affect all other components of the system to some degree. For example, if a worker has a poor work posture as a result of an inadequate chair and worksite configuration, his physical efficiency will be reduced. However, the posture problem might cause a backache (a physiological problem), which can result in adverse psychological responses as a result of pain. This can cause social problems, in some cases, if the worker becomes hostile or complains in a way that is inappropriate.

2) The physiological components associated with the work: All types of work, physical or mental produce some physiological effects on the body. Some of these effects can be stimulating and healthy, and some can cause fatigue or even illness and interfere with work performance. Mild physical exercise, with appropriate rest periods, is generally healthy for most people. Thus, work that results in such exercise, with periodic rest breaks, will probably increase the health of the employee, as he performs his job. Work that involves little or no exercise, or work that requires exercise beyond the capability of the employee, will probably have a detrimental affect on health, which will probably interfere with work efficiency in the long run.

Office work is probably quite unhealthy in most situations, because it limits and discourages physical exercise during working hours. If the employee gets a relatively large amount of exercise when he is not at work, the detrimental effect will be reduced or eliminated.

A very important physiological component, which overlaps psychological components, is fatigue. Fatigue is associated with excessive physiological strain on the body or one of its components. Fatigue can be divided into two basic categories from a physiological perspective which can be called exercise-related-fatigue, and rest-related-fatigue. For example, an employee that spends most of his working hours loading trucks will most likely experience exercise-related-fatigue. This fatigue is obviously relieved by a period of rest. The other type of fatigue is more or less the opposite of the above. Rest-related-fatigue results from not moving the limbs. We often experience this type of fatigue when we awaken in the morning. If our job requires spending hours at a desk, with little opportunity to move or walk, we will experience rest-related-fatigue. This type of fatigue can be relieved with appropriate physical exercise, which can be quite mild, such as walking a few blocks. Rest-related-fatigue can be reduced or eliminated during working hours by providing some activities that involve physical movement of the limbs. For example, an individual that works at a desk, can learn to move his legs and arms, and stretch occasionally while he is working at his desk. Periodic breaks that involve walking and stretching can also help prevent rest-related-fatigue. Requiring people that work at a desk to perform some activities that involve movement, such as running errands, cleaning the office, management by walking around, can increase their overall health and work efficiency.

3) The psychological components that relate to a job: There are many psychological components that can relate to a specific job. However, the unique psychological makeup of the individual employee, as it relates to a specific job, is of primary importance. That is, the way an individual responds to a specific job situation is very much determined by his unique psychological makeup. For example, one individual might be happy working in sanitation, because it pays good money, provides good benefits, and it provides good exercise. Another individual might consider such a job extremely distasteful, because it is associated with low social status, it is dirty, it can be somewhat dangerous, it can be physically demanding. In general, the way an individual feels about a task is an important component to consider.

Another important idea is the way the individual behaves and responds in relation to a specific job situation. For example, some people become extremely nervous when faced with confusing and complicated tasks. Other individuals might find such tasks challenging in a pleasant sense.

Thus, a primary consideration when choosing an employee is the psychological makeup of the employee in relation to the job related tasks. This, should not be confused with the overall psychological makeup of the employee, because many psychological components, as assessed with conventional psychological methods can be irrelevant to a specific job. In general, the psychological data for a specific employee and job, can be obtained by observation and asking the right questions. Asking an individual what he likes to do, what he does not mind doing, and what he dislikes doing, can provide useful information.

4) The sociological components that relate to a job: The sociological components involve the people that the employee interacts with, his culture, his subculture, his social class, and the society he lives in. An example of how a sociological component can affect an employees behavior on the job, can be seen in the Hawthorne Studies, where the workers had restrictive production norms. If an individual produced more than his coworkers considered appropriate, he would be verbally, and even physically, punished. (This is discussed in detail in chapter 12.)

Another example of a sociological component is seen in job expectations of people from different social classes. People from a working class background, might believe a skilled or semiskilled job that pays a regular salary is a satisfactory vocational achievement. People from an educated social class, might believe that it is essential to have a college degree, and a relatively high status occupation, which involves intellectual or mental effort. The attitudes held by an individual's social class will most likely have some influence on the way he responds to job related tasks.

The following questions can help solve problems that are related to employees and their job, with a multidisciplinary scientific management approach:

· What are the physical components of the job? Can the physical movements related to the job be reduced? Can the job be simplified without creating any undesirable consequences?

· What are the physiological stresses involved with the job? Can these stresses be reduced or eliminated? How can the physiological stresses be eliminated? What are the physiological components involved with the employee? Does the employee have the physical capability to perform the job in an efficient and effective manner? Does the employee have any physiological problems that interfere with his work? If so, how can these physiological problems be circumvented as far as the job is concerned?

· What are the psychological components involved with the job? How are these components affected by the physiological components? How are the physiological components affected by the psychological components?

· What are all the sociological components that relate to the job? Is the job a high status job, or is it a low status occupation? Is there any way of increasing the status of the job, in such a way as to increase satisfaction? Are there any sociological components, such as a subculture or coworkers that interfere with maximum productivity? Is so, how can this problem be solved?

References

Alland, Alexander, Jr. (1980) To Be Human, An Introduction to Anthropology Newbery Award Records, Inc. New York, NY.

Andriole Stephen J. (1983) The Handbook of Problem Solving Petrocelli Books, Inc. New York /Princeton.

Franklin Language Master electronic dictionary LM 5000

Hampton D., Summer C. & Webber R. (1978) Organizational Behavior and the Practice of Management (3rd ed.) Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, Illinois.

Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, Jr, J. W. (1996) Management, (7th ed.) South-Western College Publishing Cincinnati, Ohio.

Luthans F. & Hodgetts R. (1992) Business (2nd ed.) the Dryden Press / Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, Fort Worth Philadelphia.

Montana, P. (1991) Study Keys to Management Barron's educational Series, Inc. Hauppauge, New York.

Montana P. & Charnov B. (1993) Management, (2nd ed.) Barron's educational Series, Inc. Hauppauge, New York.

Olsen Shirley A., editor (1982) Group Planning and Problem-Solving Methods in Engineering Management John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Pepper, Gerald, L. (1995) Communicating in Organizations: a Cultural Approach, McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Robbins, S. P. (1996) Organizational Behavior (7th ed.) Simon & Schuster Company Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

Roethlisberger, Frtz J. & Dickson, William J. (1939 and 1967) Management and the Worker, (twelfth printing) Harvard University Press Cambridge, Massachusetts and London, England.

Saal, Frank E. & Knight, Patrick A. (1995) Industrial/ Organizational Psychology: Science and Practice (2nd ed.) Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, Pacific Grove, California.

Taylor, Shelley E./ Peplau, Letitia, Anne & Sears, David O. (1994) Social Psychology (8th ed.) Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey.

^{^[1]} I created this definition to illustrate the point.

^{^[2]} The term organizations, is used in a very general sense in this text. This is the case with most textbooks on management and organizational behavior. A typical textbook definition is "Organization (1) A continuously coordinated social unit, composed of two or more people that function on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals." (Robbins, Stephen P. 1996 p G-5) This definition would apply to the family as well as to a giant corporation. The general definition has much utility, because it suggests that some of the concepts, theories and methodologies that apply to large industrial organizations, may also have some application in smaller and simpler organizational structures, such as a small business or a family.

^{^[3]} The terms managerial, management and manager are used in a very general sense in this text. This is also the case with most books on either management or organizational behavior.

^{^[4]} Keep in mind that the discussion in this paragraph is only an analogy and nothing more. However, the analogy that follows, involving living organisms, does reveal certain interesting insights. This analogy will be expanded in great detail in chapter 3.

^{^[5]} These questions cover one of the most important factors in practical problem solving, which is the reason large print was used.

^{^[6]} Many authors that discuss systems fail to indicate or realize that a system is consciously or unconsciously defined by the observer.

^{^[7]} The inputs and outputs of course include money. Money can be thought of as either a type of information or matter. In the form of currency, checks or credit it is a type of information that reveals the economic worth or purchasing potential of a specific individual or organization. It might be difficult for some people to understand the above, but if you realize that money is exchanged through computers and telephone lines, it becomes apparent that it is a form of information. However, in the form of precious metals or other valuable entities money can be thought of as a type of matter.

^{^[8]} Even most service organizations take in the equivalent of raw materials, which may be only the paper and ink they use for writing. Some service related organizations might consider raw data as their raw materials, but data does not constitute a material entity. It is a form of information.

Energy is taken in and consumed by all organizations. The most obvious forms are the work of its employees and electric power. Organizations involved with manufacturing a product take in more obvious forms of raw materials and energy.

^{^[9]} This does not mean that human beings and their organizations are controlled by programs, without free will. It means that programs are used to evaluate, organize and store information that human beings receive from their environment. Programs in the human mind are also used to create new information, which can lead to new behavior patterns and/or experimentation. However, certain programmed systems are controlled primarily by the programs they contain, without free will. This is seen when the genetic code has been activated in the gestation process, forming a new offspring. It is also seen when a computer is working on a complicated problem, after all the human inputs have been completed.

^{^[10]} A black box representation means that only the inputs and output is indicated, without any consideration of the internal routing and functioning of the subsystem.

^{^[11]} Unfortunately, factors that appear to be irrelevant can in reality be highly relevant. Thus, with any simplified system model there is a risk of ignoring relevant information and dynamics, which can lead to a failure in problem solving or the development of new problems.

^{^[12]} Long-range planning carried out by the individual might relate to a time interval greater than 5 years. For example, the decision to purchase a specific automobile or work for a specific employer might affect the individual's life for longer than 5 years. However, I would not define such planning as strategic, because strategic planning is more general in nature.

^{^[13]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my interpretations. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the five quotations that follow.

^{^[14]} This example was taken from Luthans & Hodgetts book Business page 190. The example, as I presented it, is modified and written in my own words.

^{^[15]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my interpretations. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the five quotations that follow.

^{^[16]} The word manager, as used in this list, means a manager performing the leading process. However the steps on the list can apply to many types of situations that do not involve the manager, such as one person influencing another, or a leader persuading her followers to obey her orders.

^{^[17]} The word employees is used in this list to designate the people who are being led. Thus, the reader should keep in mind that the individuals being led do not necessarily have to be employees. They can be colleagues, friends, group members, relatives, volunteers, voters, etc. In addition, it should be understood that the plural designation on the word employees is not necessarily applicable in all cases of leading. For example, one manager can be leading one employee in relation to a specific task.

^{^[18]} There are certain exceptions where genetics might play some role in the development of some leadership traits. In some groups, individuals that are tall or physically strong are favored, or needed, for leadership positions. These traits have some genetic basis. In addition, the development of a high level of intelligence has some genetic as well as an environmental basis. Thus, for groups that choose leaders primarily based on the above traits, genetics is a factor. However, most modern leadership positions do not require exceptionally tall or strong individuals. Perhaps, an individual that is tall and strong might have some advantage in obtaining certain leadership positions, where the traits are irrelevant. High intelligence is important in many group situations in modern times, but the intelligence of most leaders are probably not the result of superior genetics.

^{^[19]} Leadership, abilities, skills and traits are acquired through all of the following: the socialization process, from experience, from formal and informal study, from working with other leaders, from followers.

^{^[20]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my interpretations. In addition, I added the underlined print to the ten quotations that follow.

^{^[21]} In all of the questions, the word employee means the followers or the individuals that you are trying to lead. Thus, they can be volunteers, friends, family members, or paid employees in the work environment.

^{^[22]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my interpretations. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the four quotations that follow.

^{^[23]} Of course, the hypothetical example certainly does not imply that all unions and their actions are dysfunctional.

^{^[24]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my statements.

^{^[25]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my interpretations. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the three quotations that follow.

^{^[26]} This discussion is primarily focused on a corporation with a number of stockholders that are not directly involved with the operation of the organization.

^{^[27]} The ideas expressed in the following paragraphs are based on the relative power of the stakeholders. In a real situation, there might be cultural, moral, ethical, and legal standards modifying the controlling power of the stakeholders, which will modify the final outcome.

^{^[28]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my interpretations. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the four quotations that follow.

^{^[29]} All the phrases in quotation marks are from Andriole's book. I added the bold underlined type to the quotations. The words that are not in quotation marks are my statements.

^{^[30]} The word new, means original from the frame of reference of the creator.

^{^[31]} The words in this model are used in a highly general way. That is, terms such as search, goal, evaluated, usefulness, selected usually imply a conscious effort carried out by one or more human beings, but that is not necessarily the case here. It is not a conscious effort, as the term conscious is generally defined, when an evolutionary sequence or a computer is carrying out the creative process. In such cases the concepts that relates to the above terms are inferred by the final result.

^{^[32]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my statements. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the four quotations that follow. The quotations were taken from a book on social psychology, by Taylor, Peplau, & Sears.

^{^[33]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my statements. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the four quotations that follow. The quotations were taken from a book on management, by Hellriegel & Slocum.

^{^[34]} One of these studies was carried out by Taylor, Berry, and Block in 1958, and it was discussed in Social Psychology, by Taylor, Peplau, & Sears. The overall consensus of my sources agree with the above study, except for Hellriegel & Slocum. These authors believe that many of the studies conducted on brainstorming are invalid, because they were carried out on inexperienced college students, with fictitious problems that had no personal meaning to them.

^{^[35]} Hellriegel & Slocum provided a similar description to the one in this paragraph, but it was based on the actual application of the technique by Chrysler, for their automobiles.

^{^[36]} The words: our, we, they, you, your in this discussion can refer to individual(s), management, a group or an entire organization.

^{^[37]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my statements. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the six quotations that follow.

^{^[38]} The term audience means the individual(s) or group who will receive the information, transmitted in the communications process.

^{^[39]} I added the bold underlined print to the words in quotation marks.

^{^[40]} The discussion in the following two paragraphs were not presented by Robbins or by Hellriegel & Slocum.

^{^[41]} The four statements are my interpretation of the material I read in the Management and the Worker. The quotations are from the original study, as reprinted in the above source. I discuss these and other quotations from the Hawthorne Studies in more detail in chapter 12.

^{^[42]} I am using the term trait in a very general way in this chapter. Basically the term, as used in this chapter, means: component or factor of organizational culture.

^{^[43]} The words that are not in quotation marks are my statements. In addition, I added the bold underlined print to the quotations that follow. All the quotations on this list were taken from Robbins's book.

^{^[44]} The words in quotation marks are from Luthans & Hodgetts. The following four descriptions are in my wording, but they are based on the definitions and delineations that Luthans & Hodgetts presented in their book.

^{^[45]} The year the Hawthorne Studies started may be listed in some sources as 1927 instead of 1924. 1924 is when the illumination studies began, and 1927 is when researchers from Harvard University joined the studies to try and clear up the mystery that resulted from the illumination studies.

^{^[46]} Modern illumination studies do indicate that higher levels of illumination, without glare, can decrease the time needed to perform certain tasks. (Saal, F. E. & Knight, P. A. 1995, p. 446.) Thus, the Hawthorne engineers had the right idea, but there were errors in their methodology, which will become apparent later on in this chapter.

^{^[47]} As will be explained later, the Hawthorne experiments are believed to have been affected by the observations of the researchers. Keep in mind the section of the study that is discussed here does not involve experimental manipulation of any kind.

^{^[48]} Of course, the cooperation only applies to the workers that were conforming to the norms. The workers that disobeyed the norms were of course not cooperating and were punished by the other group members, with negative verbal remarks, rejection, and the threat of getting a bing (a punch in the upper arm).

^{^[49]} The same idea might also apply to some students that are not motivated to do their studies. That is, they might find the studying uncomfortably and painfully difficult.

^{^[50]} Job expansion means here the adding of one or more additional tasks to a job. The additional tasks that are added may or may not increase the responsibilities and status of the job. An example of job expansion is to give a secretary the responsibility to act as a receptionist, hostess for special occasions, a shopper for office supplies, and a supervisor for lower level clerical workers. This would probably result in her spending less time on traditional secretarial work, such as typing, taking dictation, and filing papers.

^{^[51]} Montana & Charnovd briefly delineated (p 127) the three types of objectives that I am discussing in this paragraph.

^{^[52]} Theory X and theory Y are Douglas McGregor's concepts of two opposing management styles, which were discussed in chapter 7.

^{^[53]} The salaries are based on the late 1800s to early 1900s, which is the time period that Taylor did his studies.

^{^[54]} The following discussion involves a brief multidisciplinary approach. I only mention a few factors that relate to physics, physiology, psychology, and sociology in this discussion, because of space limitations. A detailed description would involve hundreds if not thousands of factors and it would fill an entire book at the very least.