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Biology and Health Science, With Related Technical Writing A Theoretical And Practical Perspective By David Alderoty July, 2008 Phone (212) 581-3740 E-mail: RunDavid@Verizon.net Scroll down to read this e-book using the down
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PART ONE: THE TABLE OF
CONTENTS AND AN INTRODUCTION TO THIS BOOK
Left click on these words: to return to the
Table of Contents
Hyperlink Table
of Contents
PART ONE: THE TABLE OF CONTENTS AND AN
INTRODUCTION TO THIS BOOK
2 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
About This
Multimedia Electronic Book
THIS ELECTRONIC BOOK FUNCTIONS EXACTLY LIKE A
CONVENTIONAL WEBSITE
Chapter 1,
Writing And The Biological Sciences-Your Writing Objectives
YOUR WRITING GOALS AND YOUR READERS
Your
Document, And Your Communication Objectives
Communication
And Psychological Factors
Your
Document, And Your Personal Objectives
CREATING TEXT THAT IS APPROPRIATE FOR YOUR
READERS AND YOUR OBJECTIVES
3 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 2,
Writing And The Biological Sciences-Style
Requirements, And Related Concepts
THE FUNCTIONALITY, AND DYSFUNCTIONALITY OF
STYLE REQUIREMENTS
Consider
The Style Requirements, As Well As Good Grammar, Sentence And Paragraph
Structure.
Style
Requirements Are Sometimes Dysfunctional
The
Passive Voice, And Style Requirements
Summing
Up: The Passive Voice In Lab Reports And Scientific Journals
Websites
On Scientific Documents, Passive Voice, And Related Concepts
4 Click on this
hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 3,
Writing And The Biological Sciences: Articles For Laypeople
STRUCTURE OF MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPER ARTICLES
IN BIOLOGY AND HEALTH SCIENCE
A
Description Of Typical Style Requirements For Lay Newspapers And Magazines
Websites
On Writing Biology And Health Science Articles For The General Public.
5 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 4,
Writing And The Biological Sciences: Formal Scientific Documents
THE STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL SCIENTIFIC
DOCUMENTS, SUCH AS JOURNAL ARTICLES, AND SCIENTIFIC REPORTS
Structure
And Style Requirements For Journal Articles And Similar Scientific Documents
The
Passive and Active Voice In Scientific Documents
A
Descriptive Title That Describes The Content Of The Document
The
Name Of The Writer And Credentials And Affiliations
An
Abstract For Scientific Documents.
The
Introduction Of A Journal Article Or Other Scientific Document
Should
You Report Extraneous Data (Or Noise) Obtained From Your Research, In The
Results Section?
An
Explanatory Note On Extraneous Data: What Is Noise?
Concluding
Information Of A Scientific Document
The
Acknowledgments Section Of A Journal Article Or Other Scientific Document
The
Literature Cited Section Of A Scientific Document
Works
Cited In Electronic Documents
Appendix
Of A Scientific Documents (Appendices Is Plural) (Singular Is Appendix)
Websites
On Writing Scientific Documents
6 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
AN OPTIMIZED SEQUENCE FOR CREATING A JOURNAL
ARTICLE OR SCIENTIFIC DOCUMENT
Step
One For Creating A Scientific Document: creating Good Research Plans
How
To Create, Or Improve, Your Research Plans
Step
Two For Creating A Scientific Document, Obtaining Funding For Your Research
Websites
On How To Write Research Grant Proposals, And Obtain Funding For Research
7 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Third Step For Creating A Scientific Document, Carrying Out The Research And
Taking Notes
How
To Deal With Writer's Block And Sticking Points When Writing A Scientific
Document.
Self
Publication On The Internet Is An Alternative Way Of Getting Scientific
Documents Published
8 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
BASIC IDEAS ABOUT MICROSOFT WORD’S
CHECKERS
HOW
TO USE MICROSOFT WORD’S SPELL CHECKER
The
Basic Features Of The Spellchecker
MICROSOFT
WORD’S GRAMMAR AND STYLE CHECKER
How
To Use Microsoft Word's Grammar And Style Checker
Adjusting
The Microsoft Word Grammar And Style Checker
The
Passive Voice, And The Microsoft Word Style Checker
9 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 7,
Writing And The Biological Sciences: The Electronic Format
A DESCRIPTION OF THE ELECTRONIC FORMAT, AND
ITS ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL HARDCOPY
Introduction
To The Electronic Format
Scientific
Journal Articles And The Electronic Format
Variations
Of The Electronic Format
Multimedia Documents Can Be Designed So
They Can Be Printed And Understood In A Hardcopy Format
Summing Up The Utility Of The Multimedia
Format For Scientific Documents
WRITING
FOR ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
General
Structure And Style Of Electronic Documents
THE
WRITING STYLE USED FOR THIS BOOK
A
Very Useful Style For Complex Subjects, Such As Biological Science
The
Text Was Created For Reading And A Recorded Narration
10 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 8 The
Internet And Special Search Engines, And Directories For Biology And Health
Science
SEARCH ENGINES AND RELATED CONCEPTS
What
Is an Internet Search Engine
A
List Of Popular Search Engines
11 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
An
Alternative To Search Engines, Internet Directories
A
List Of General Directories, For Finding Information On The Internet
12 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Academic
Search Engines And related Information
13 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Specialized
Search Engines, And Directories
14 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Websites
For Information And Downloads Of Browsers
15 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 9 Atoms,
Molecules, Chemistry, Physics, Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Introduction:
The building blocks
*A
Note On Naturally Occurring Elements
A
Note On Elements Created By Scientists In Nuclear Reactions
16 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Are
Isotopes Relevant for Biological Science?
17 Click on
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Atoms,
Molecules, and Chemicals
THE
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF LIVING MATTER
What
Are The Most Abundant Chemicals In Living Matter? C, H, O, N, Ca, Ph
Life
Forms Based On Elements Other Than Carbon, This Is Quite Doubtful ????????
A
Brief Note On Organic Chemistry
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this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
19 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
From
The Smallest To The Largest, Concluding Concepts
Chapter 10 A
Brief Look At Life From The Perspective Of Physics, And Related Concepts
The
Laws Of Physics That Apply To Machines And Other Inanimate Objects, Also Apply
To Living Things
20 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
PHYSICS, ENERGY, WORK AND LIVING THINGS
The
Above Suggests the Question: What is the Ultimate Source of Energy for Living
Things.
Websites
On Photosynthesis, And Related Concepts
21 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Animals
Generally Get Their Energy By Eating Plants Or Other Animals
Are
There Any Living Things On Earth That Do Not Ultimately Depend On The Sun For
Energy
Another
Explanation: Is There Really A Significant Non-Solar Food Chain On Our Planet?
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this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
PART FOUR: THE
FOLLOWING CHAPTERS DEAL WITH MICROBIOLOGY
AND RELATED CONCEPTS
Chapter 11 Microbiology:
Microscopes
Introduction:
The Microscope, And Related Developments In Biology
How
Is Magnification Measured, And What Units Of Length Are Used For Microscopic
Work
A
Note On The History Of The Microscope
Websites
On The History Of The Microscope
23 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Websites
On The Light Microscope, And Related Concepts
24 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Oil
Immersion Objectives For High Magnification
PROBLEMS AND TECHNIQUES WITH THE LIGHT
MICROSCOPE
The
Problem Of Contrast And Detail With Light Microscopes
Methods
Of Increasing Contrast And Detail Of Microorganisms, Without Killing Them
MY PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK AND EXPERIMENTS WITH
THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
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this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
26 Click on
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Chapter 12
Microbiology: Cells And Related Concepts
THE CELL, AND RELATED CONCEPTS
Cells
Are The Smallest Living Entities, But They Are Very Complex
A FEW MAJOR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES
OF CELLS
In
What Way Are Cells Similar To Each Other
What
Are Some Of The Ways That Cells Differ From Each Other?
CELLS
CAN BE SEPARATED INTO CATEGORIES IN A NUMBER OF WAYS
Single
Celled Organisms, And Cells From Multicellular Organisms
Cells
With And Without Locomotion
Another
Category Of Cells Is Archaea, Which Was At One Time Called Archaebacteria
27 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
From
One Bacteria To Over 17.5 Trillion, In 45 Generations
Efforts
to Deal with Resistant Strains of Infectious Bacteria
AN
EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE, OR SPECULATION, OF PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES
28 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 13
Microbiology: The Cellular Structure Of Living Things
CELLS FROM THE SIMPLEST PERSPECTIVE
Introductory
Concepts, Three Components Of Cells
Transport
Of Chemicals Through The Cell Membrane
Inactive
Transport Through The Cell Membrane
An
Active Form Of Transport Through The Cell Membrane Requires Energy
Websites
With Photographs And Diagrams Of The Mitochondria
29 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Mitochondria And Energy Production
Chloroplasts Are Present In Green Plants
Some Cells Have Cell Walls Such As Green
Plants And Certain Fungi
Websites On Cells, Organelles And Related
Concepts
30 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Movements
Of Cells, As Part Of A Multicellular Organism
Movement
With Water And Air Currents
Movement Of Cells With Cilia (Locomotion
Of With Cilia Plural
For Cilia
What
Is Flagella (Plural Is Flagellum)
What
Is A Pseudopod (The Plural Is Pseudopods Or Pseudopodia)
PART FIVE: THE
TWO CHAPTERS THAT FOLLOW DEAL WITH EVOLUTION.
Chapter-14 A Summary Of Evolution Of Life On Planet Earth
HOW LIFE DEVELOPED? IN A SERIES OF EVOLUTIONARY STAGES
The
Formation Of The Fundamental Elements Needed For Life
31 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chemical
Formation Of Basic Inorganic Compounds
32 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of The Organic Chemicals Needed For Life
33 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Bacteria (Prokaryotes)
34 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Cyanobacteria, a Prokaryote (Blue-Green Algae)
35 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Archaea: A Simple Species Of Archaea May Have Developed Before
Bacteria
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this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
37 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Evolvement
Of Advanced Forms Of Algae, With Eukaryotic Cells
38 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Green Plants (That Live On Land)
39 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Multicellular Fungi (Eukaryotic Cells)
40 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Protozoa (Eukaryotes Single Celled Organisms)
41 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Multicellular Organisms With Locomotion
42 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Evolvement Of Insects, Spiders, And Centipedes
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hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
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Another
Possibility For The Evolvement Of Birds
The Evolvement
Of Higher Mammals, Primates
48 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
IN THE MOST GENERAL SENSE, WHAT IS EVOLUTION?
A WIDER MEANING OF THE CONCEPT OF
EVOLUTION
Most
Languages, Including English, Developed In An Evolutionary Process
Cultural
Evolution And Societies
Many
Aspects Of Our Lives Develop In An Evolutionary Process
A NOTE ON BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION, AND THE
ROLES OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION
A NOTE ON MODERN EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
Is
Modern Evolutionary Theory The Same As Charles Darwin's Theory Of Evolution?
EVOLUTIONARY PROCESSES AND RANDOM CHANCE
The
Relativity Of Randomness And Chance Occurrences
A
Note On: The Stages Involved With The Evolutionary Development Of Life
Note
On The Terminology: Exothermic Reactions, And Endothermic Reactions
A
Note* On Exothermic Reactions And The Evolvement Of The Basic Inorganic
Chemicals Needed For Life
A
Note On: Different Types Of Endothermic Reactions Require Different Types Of
Energy
There
Are Many Other Ways That The Organic Chemicals Needed For Life Could Have Been
Created
The
Accumulation Of Organic Chemicals
THE
SECOND STAGE OF EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE: THE EVOLVEMENT OF PROKARYOTES
A
Note On: The Evolvement Of The First Living Entities, From Chemicals
The
Development Of The First Living Entity Might Have Been The Result Of Random
Chance
The
Evolvement Of Nucleic Acid.
The
First Bacteria That Evolved And Their Food
Did
The Evolvement Of One Living Cell Produce All Living Things On Earth?
THE THIRD STAGE IN THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE
EVOLVEMENT OF EUKARYOTE
Eukaryotes
And One Possibility Of How They May Have Evolved
A NOTE ON VIRUSES AND EVOLUTION
What
Are Viruses, Are They Living Or Nonliving Entities
New
Strains Of Viruses And Their Evolvement
DOES
EVOLUTION CONTINUED TO THE PRESENT DAY?
Does
Evolution Of Plants And Animals Continue To The Present Day?
49 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
PART SIX: HEALTH
STRATEGIES AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE
Chapter 16 A
Simplified Examination Of Human Physiology, To Gain Insight For Health
The
Human Body As An Electrochemical Machine
50 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
HOW DOES THE HUMAN BODY WORK? A SIMPLIFIED
SUMMARY
Starting
With Energy Production
Websites
On The Circulatory System, Blood, Lungs And Heart
Internet
Videos On The Circulatory System, And Related Concepts
51 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Digestion
And Related Concepts
Websites
On Digestion And Related Concepts
Internet
Videos On Digestion, And Related Concepts
52 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Waste
Products And The Kidneys
Internet
Videos On The Kidneys
Websites
On More Advanced Concepts Of Physiology And Anatomy
53 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 17 What
We Can Control To Improve Our Health, Happiness, And The Quality Of Life
AN ASSESSMENT OF WHAT WE CAN AND CANNOT
CONTROL IN RELATION TO THE QUALITY OF LIFE
What
We Cannot Control In Relation To The Quality Of Life
What
We Can Control And The Quality Of Life
HEALTH AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE IN RELATION TO
OUR HABITS
Examples
Of Habits, And The Rewards They Provide
A
Note On The Probabilities Associated With Good And Bad Habits
Dividing
Habits Into Four Categories.
SELF-IMPROVEMENT AND YOUR HABITS
Use
Yourself As A Standard Of Comparison For Your Self-Improvement Efforts
Self-Improvement
Efforts Are More Likely To Be Fruitful If They Are Focused On Improving Habits
Practice
Does Not Mean Perfect
Feedback
And Correction Is Important For Any Type Of Practice
Make
Your Efforts And Related Practice For Self-Improvement As Enjoyable As Possible
54 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 18
Nutrition And Health
NUTRITION FROM A PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE
What
Is A Healthy Well-Balanced Diet?
The
Ideal Concept Of Food Variety In Relation To A Healthy Diet
Cultural
Diversity In Relation To Food
A
List Of Food Groups Or Food Categories That Comprise A Healthy American Diet
Other
Methods Of Devising A Healthy And Balanced Diet
55 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
UNDERSTANDING AND CREATING DIETS BASED ON
INDIVIDUAL NUTRIENTS
A
Basic Understanding Of The Chemicals Needed By The Body
Water
As A Nutrient, And Related Websites
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this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
59 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Websites
On Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Websites
On Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin).
Websites
On Niacin (Or Niacinamide).
Websites
On Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine).
60 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
THEORIES AND EXCUSES FOR THE PROBLEM OF
OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY IN THE DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
Why
The Theory Of A Sedentary Lifestyle, (Lack Of Exercise) And Overweight Fails
Why
The Theory Of Aging And Overweight Fails
Why
The Theory Of Genetics And Overweight Fails
Why
Fat Cell Theories Of Overweight Fail
What
Are The Real Causes Of Overweight In The Developed Countries?
JUNK FOODS, FATTENING FOODS AND LOW-CALORIE
FOODS
Why
Are Junk Foods A Major Health Problem
EXAMINING THE PROBLEM OF OVERWEIGHT FROM
THE PERSPECTIVE OF HABITS
Poor
Exercise Habits Or Sedentary Habits
The
Solution To The Problem Of Overweight And Obesity
61 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 20
Health, Exercise And Related Concepts
THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF THREE CATEGORIES OF
EXERCISE, EACH PROVIDING ITS OWN UNIQUE HEALTH BENEFITS
Introductory
Ideas: Everyone Seems To Agree That Appropriate Exercise Is Healthy
Stretching,
Resistance And Cardiovascular Exercises
Flexibility
and Range Of Motion Are The Benefits Of Stretching Exercises
Stretching
Exercises Do Not Provide The Benefits Of Resistance And Cardiovascular Exercise
Stretching
Exercises Can Be Divided Into Two Categories, Static And Dynamic
Stretching
Exercises, And The Feel Of The Stretch
Stretching
Exercises And Temperature
Internet
Videos On Stretching Exercises
Websites
On Stretching Exercises
62 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Resistance
Exercises Can Be Classified From A Continuums From Dynamic To Static
A Continuum Of
Speed In Relation To Resistance Exercises
A Continuum Of
The Number Of Repetitions In Relation To Resistance Exercises
Understanding
The Continuum Concepts Presented Above Can Be Useful When Planning An Exercise
Program
Internet
Videos On Resistance Exercises
Websites
On Resistance Exercises
63 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE (AEROBIC EXERCISE)
Benefits
Of Cardiovascular Exercise (Also Called Aerobics)
What
Is Cardiovascular Exercise?
Shoes
For Aerobic Activities (Cardiovascular Exercises)
Clothing
For Aerobic Activities (Cardiovascular Exercises)
Music
Can Make Aerobics (Cardiovascular Exercise) More Pleasant For Most People
How
Often Should Cardiovascular Exercise Be Carried Out?
Videos
On Aerobics (Cardiovascular Exercise)
Websites
On Aerobics (Cardiovascular Exercise)
64 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
RISK REDUCTION AND HEALTHY EXERCISE PROGRAMS
Reducing
Chances Of Injury From Aerobics With Proper Shoes And A Well-Balanced Exercise
Program
The
Difference Between A Health-Orientated And An Athletic-Performance Exercise
Program
Is
There An Ideal Exercise Program That Is Low Risk, And Healthy For
Everyone? Maybe Aerobic Dancing
Internet
videos For Aerobic Dance Exercises
65 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
SOLUTIONS FOR PROBLEMS AND EXCUSES THAT
INTERFERE WITH REGULAR EXERCISE
Three
Of The Most Common Problems Or Excuses
How
To Conquer The Problem of Time: I Do Not Have Time To Exercise
Improve
Your Time Management Skills and Your Daily Schedule, So You Will Have More Time
To Exercise
You
Can Also Save Time By Avoiding Health Clubs And Gyms
The
Problem Of Pain From Exercise, And The Solutions
A
Solution To The Problem: I Do Not Like To Exercise
Summing
Up: Designing An Optimal Exercise Program
Miscellaneous Websites On Exercise And
Related Concepts
66 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 21 A
Practical Perspective On The Sensations Of Fatigue And Energy, And Sleep
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF FATIGUE
Fatigue
Can Be Divided Into Two Broad Categories
Very
Often Physiological Fatigue And Inhibitory Fatigue Are Activated Simultaneously
Is
Fighting Or Resisting Fatigue Healthy Or Hazardous?
There
Are A Number Of Healthy Ways Of Reducing The Various Types Of Physiological
Fatigue
Each
Activity Produces Its Own Unique Type Of Fatigue
Activity
Related Fatigue Associated With Sitting Related Work And Its Antidotes
Exercise
Related Fatigue, And Its Antidotes
Activity
Related Fatigue Associated With Eating, (Especially Overeating) And Related
Antidotes
Websites
On Fatigue, And Related Concepts
67 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
There
Are Adverse Consequences Of Excessive Sleep Or Bed Rest, Which Can Be Reversed
With Exercise
The
Amount Of Sleep You Need Partly Relates To Your Sleep Efficiency
Websites
On Insomnia, And Related Concepts
68 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The
Opposite Of Insomnia: Excessive Sleep
Websites
On Excessive Sleepiness And Fatigue
69 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
HOW TO DEAL WITH THE NORMAL LEVELS OF FATIGUE
AND BECOME MORE ENERGETIC
Strategies To Feel More Energetic And Less
Fatigued
Maintain A Regular 24-Hour Cycle
Eat a healthy well-balanced diet
Excessive Body Weight Can Result In
Additional Fatigue
Excessively Low Body Weight Can Result In
Additional Fatigue
Develop Your Body With An Exercise Program
Make Your Environment As Stimulating And
Pleasant As Possible
Try To Make Your Work More Interesting
Exciting And Pleasant
Seek Medical Treatment For Any Type Of
Problematic Fatigue
Websites
On Sleep And Related Concepts
70 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 22
Emotional Stress And Relaxation
Techniques
CONCEPTS AND BELIEFS ABOUT STRESS
A
Note: What Is Emotional Stress?
Do
We Really Live In A More Emotionally Stressful Society?
Comparing
Modern Life To An Ideal Less Stressful Society
Modern
Society Is Perhaps Excessively Concerned About Stress
IS EMOTIONAL STRESS ALWAYS BAD, OR IS IT SOMETIMES
STIMULATING AND HEALTHY?
Stress
Can Sometimes Provide The Energy And Motivation To Make Improvements In Our
Lives
Under
What Conditions Is Stress Destructive, And Under What Conditions Is It Healthy
And Productive?
RELAXATION TECHNIQUES AND RELATED CONCEPTS
There
Are A Large Number Of Relaxation Techniques
A
Note On A Different Perspective Of Emotional Stress
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE ONE: FACING THE PROBLEMS
OF LIFE, AND TRYING TO ALLEVIATE THEM
Try
To Solve, Alleviate, Or Circumvent Your Problems
Three
Common Causes Of Emotional Stress, And Some Possible Solutions
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE TWO DEVELOP A HEALTHY
ATTITUDE OR PHILOSOPHY
Learn
To Deal With Imperfections And Failures In Yourself, In Others, And In The
World In General
Design
Your Life, And Activities To Make You Healthy And Happy
People
Under Emotional Stress, Sometimes Inadvertently Cause Problems For Others
Design
A Healthy And Happy Life, And Live It
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE FIVE: LISTENING TO
RELAXING MUSIC OR OTHER SOUNDS
Basic
Concepts Music And Sounds For Relaxation
Getting
Started With The Technique
Relaxing
Music Or Sounds While You Are Involved With Other Activities
Hyperlinks
To Videos On The Internet With Relaxation Music
71 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE SIX MEDITATION
A
Basic Description Of Meditation For Relaxation
Is
Meditation A Good Relaxation Technique For Everyone?
The
Practical Use Of Meditation As A Relaxation Technique
Videos
on the Internet On Meditation
Websites
On Meditation And Related Concepts
72 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE SEVEN: BREATHING
EXERCISES
Breathing
Exercises With Other Relaxation Techniques
Learning
And Experimenting With Breathing Exercises
Hyperlinks
To Internet Videos On Breathing Exercises For Relaxation
Websites
On Breathing Exercises And Related Concepts
73 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE EIGHT: PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION
A
Description Of The Technique
The
Objective Of Progressive Relaxation
Combining
Progressive Relaxation Techniques With Other Methods
Mastering
Progressive Relaxation
Videos
On The Internet For Progressive Relaxation Techniques
Websites
On Progressive Relaxation Techniques
74 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE NINE: HYPNOSIS
Types
Of Hypnosis And A Description Of The Basic Technique
Hypnosis
With Sound Recordings Or Videos
How
To Use Hypnosis Successfully
Hyperlinks
To Internet Videos On Hypnosis
Websites
On Hypnosis And Relaxation
75 Click on
this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE TEN: BIOFEEDBACK FOR
RELAXATION
A
Basic Description And Basic Concepts Of Biofeedback
Biofeedback
Is Usually Done With Some Type Of Electronic Monitoring Device
You
Do Not Necessarily Need Equipment To Use Biofeedback As A Relaxation Technique
A
Modified Version Of Biofeedback Can Be, Performed While Doing Other Activities
Internet
Videos On Biofeedback
76 Click on
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RELAXATION TECHNIQUE ELEVEN: MULTIPLE
TECHNIQUES IN AN OPTIMIZED COMBINATION
A
Number Of Relaxation Techniques In The Right Combination For You
Ongoing
Practice Using Multiple Relaxation Techniques
Internet
Videos On Various Aspects Of Relaxation
Websites
On Relaxation And Related Concepts
2 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
About This Multimedia Electronic Book
THIS ELECTRONIC BOOK
FUNCTIONS EXACTLY LIKE A CONVENTIONAL WEBSITE
This electronic book behaves exactly like a conventional website. Thus, you
can use the exact same controls and techniques you use when you open a
conventional website on the Internet.
The book opens in Internet Explorer, and it was tested thoroughly with
this browser. However, it will open
and function in most browsers.
The e-book is linked directly, and indirectly, to millions of
websites. If a website link does
not function, use the words next to the link as a search phrase. Place the search phrase, in the same
search engine that was used for the original search. In most cases, this is listed on top of
the list of websites, such as Search phrase with Google:
The search
engine that was used to find most of the websites in this book is Google, but
Google scholar, and Yahoo are very useful search engines. You can access these search engines at
http://scholar.google.com/schhp,
The chapters
that follow in this portion of the book provide practical information that will
help you create scientific documents of all types. Much of the information applies to all
forms of descriptive and technical writing. However, the focus is on the biological
sciences, and related research. The
last chapter in this series provides information on search engines and
directories that deal with the biological sciences, including medicine.
Chapter 1, Writing And The Biological Sciences-Your
Writing Objectives
YOUR WRITING GOALS AND
YOUR READERS
When writing, it is important to
consider your goals and your readers.
This is especially the case when writing about biology, medicine, and
health. Your goals and readers will
determine the style you use, including words and sentence structure. All of this can present a challenge,
which differs each time you write a document of any kind.
There are two categories of goals
involved with a writing task. The
first category I will call your communication
objectives, and
the second category I will call your
personal objectives. I will discuss this in
detail in the following paragraphs.
Your Document, And Your Communication Objectives
Your Communication objective is the message you are trying to
transmit to your readers. It
includes the information and specific arguments that you are trying to convey
to your readers. That is, each
writing task involves some type of communication goal, even if it is just a
note, a term paper, a book, or a Ph.D. thesis. For example, the communication
objective for a note might be to inform a colleague that you will not be
available on a specific date. The communication
objective of a doctors note, might be to explain that the patient was
absent from school because of illness.
The communication objective of a report can be to inform your
boss that additional laboratory equipment is required, and to explain why the
equipment is necessary. The communication objective of scientific articles and
books often involve conveying information and explaining dynamics, hypotheses,
theories, and experiments.
Communication And Psychological Factors
Your communication objectives can also include various
psychological components. This can
involve text that challenges the reader to solve a problem, or stimulates the
readers thought processes, in relation to a topic. It can also involve persuading your readers
that your arguments are valid, your plans are justified, and that you carried
out your experiment with knowledge, skill and precision. Persuasive writing, with good
scientific arguments, and related plans for experimentation are very important
for the grant proposals needed for scientific research. Medical literature written for the
general public often involves attempts to persuade the readers to avoid
unhealthy behaviors, and develop healthy habits.
Keep in mind that the concepts of
writing
objectives, which were explained above, are very different from personal
objectives. Personal objectives
that relate to writing are discussed below.
Your Document, And Your Personal Objectives
Your personal
objectives are
what you are trying to gain from your writing efforts. Some examples will clarify this
concept. The author of a book might
have personal objectives of earning money from his
efforts, and gaining prestige. The personal
objectives of a
student writing a term paper can be to obtain a high grade, and pass a
course. The personal objectives of
the writer of a scientific journal article, can involve gaining prestige, and
increasing the chances of obtaining high status employment.
Sometimes a writing task involves
a number of personal objectives. For example, an individual writing a
Ph.D. thesis will probably have a primary goal of obtaining a Ph.D. He or she can have secondary goals of
getting the thesis published, and gaining prestige in the profession. In addition, the personal
objectives can
also involve obtaining employment in a high status and high-paying job, as a
result of obtaining a publisher for the thesis.
Now that the concept of communication
objectives, and personal objectives have been clarified, we can
proceed to the next problem faced by writers.
CREATING TEXT THAT IS
APPROPRIATE FOR YOUR READERS AND YOUR OBJECTIVES
Who are your readers?
Are your readers laypeople,
students, technicians, nurses, physicians, professes or scientists? Do you know your readers,
personally? Are you writing for a
mixed audience, such as patients and doctors? Are you writing for a very diverse
audience, such as laypeople, students, physicians, and biologists? There are a number of techniques to use
to successfully deal with the above questions, and related problems, which are
explained below.
A Simple Technique: Think Of Your Objectives, And Put Yourself In The
One of the simplest techniques is
to imagine that you are your readers.
When you do this, do not think of your ideal or friendly reader. You should think of your less
knowledgeable and critical readers.
This should include readers that have poor reading habits, and come to
conclusions without reading enough of the document to understand it. Think about their knowledge, vocabulary,
experience, or lack of experience, as you imagine that you are your
readers. Also, think of their
culture, subculture, beliefs and sensitivities, and try to think as they do. Do this as you are writing. Periodically, ask yourself: will my
readers understand these words, this sentence, this paragraph? Will my readers misunderstand the
text that I am writing? Will they
accept this material as valid? Will
they react adversely to this paragraph or statement? Then try to answer the questions, by
imagining that you are your readers.
Then, write accordingly.
This includes thinking about your communication and personal objectives
before you write, and make corrections in your words, sentences and paragraphs,
to suit your readers.
Keep in mind that it is necessary
to carry out the above technique while you are writing, so you can make
corrections. If you postpone it
until you have completed significant portions of your document, you might have
to do additional work.
One of the major problems with
the technique presented above, is you are imagining, and making assumptions
about your readers? The assumptions
may or may not be accurate enough to guide you in your writing efforts. You can circumvent this difficulty by
testing your document on a sample of your readers. This can also include an informal
assessment of your reader’s vocabulary, knowledge, education, culture,
subculture, and any other factors that relate to your writing efforts.
The above technique works best
when you can test portions of your document, well before it is completed. Sometimes, the best strategy is to
present two or three versions of the material to find out what version the
readers comprehend best, and prefer.
If you are dealing with a limited number of readers, such as a few
colleagues, or one instructor, you might be able to test your work with all of
your readers.
3 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 2, Writing And The Biological Sciences-Style Requirements, And Related Concepts
THE FUNCTIONALITY, AND DYSFUNCTIONALITY OF STYLE
REQUIREMENTS
Consider The Style Requirements, As Well As Good Grammar, Sentence And
Paragraph Structure.
Biological and medical literature
should contain proper grammar, and good sentence and paragraph structure. You should try to avoid excessively
wordy sentences. Try to structure
your sentences and paragraphs to maximize comprehension. However, perfection is not as easy as it
is with non-technical writing, or text written for the general public. Non-technical material often provides
the freedom to eliminate difficult aspects of a topic, especially if it is
difficult to explain in written language.
This usually cannot be done with technical material, such as research
articles and lab reports. Sometimes
it is necessary to use sentences and paragraphs that are longer and more
complex than we prefer, to explain the technical material.
Style
requirements involve far more than the above, based on the way I am using the
terminology. It includes the
structure of a document, report, or article, such as requirements for an
abstract, executive summary, headings, table of contents, etc. It also include the type of wording
used, such as technical or non-technical words, permissible sentence lengths,
the passive voice or the active voice, or both, and many other factors.
The style demanded by one
publisher is not likely to be the same as another publisher. The same applies to employers, clients,
and instructors.
Style Requirements Are Sometimes Dysfunctional
Style requirements can sometimes
be counterproductive for both writers and readers. That is the requirements can interfere
with the communication process.
This involves style requirements that make it difficult to present
information. Dysfunctional style
requirements can sometimes make articles or reports excessively wordy. Dysfunctional style requirements might
make documents more difficult to write, and more difficult to read. Functional style requirements make a
document easier to read and sometimes, but not always, easier to write.
A style requirement may be
dysfunctional to varying degrees, when it restricts words, such as you, I,
and we, or restricts the use of the passive or active voice. An unconditional requirement to use the
passive or active voice, or any other type of wording, can also interfere with
the communication process. This is
especially the case with any type of technical or scientific writing.
That is, it is often very
difficult to describe technical and scientific phenomena in written language,
for readers that are not already familiar with the material. When certain words and the passive voice
are restricted, or unconditionally required, it might be difficult or
impossible to write text that is easy to understand.
The Passive Voice, And Style Requirements
Most style requirements and
English instructors, condemn the passive voice. However, the passive voice is often required
by scientific journals, lab reports, and other scientific documents, especially
when explaining experiments. It is
sometimes used in reports when the individual(s) who performed an action is not
relevant. For example, the cells
were separated from the growth media, and centrifuged for 15 minutes. The passive voice is especially useful,
if the writer does not know who actually performed the task.
Sometimes reports are written
with the passive voice to avoid blaming someone for an adverse event, or when
it is not known or unclear who is responsible for causing an accident. For example, the switch controlling the
cooling system of the nuclear reactor was accidentally turned off. This sentence conceals the identity of
the individual or workgroup who made the error.
When the passive voice is used in
a functional and skillful way, the focus is not on style requirements. The focus is on creating text that
presents ideas precisely and clearly.
This involves using the passive voice in sentences when it presents the
ideas better than the active voice, and vice a versa, without style
restrictions. However, if we want
to have our writing accepted by publishers, employers, clients, or instructors,
we usually must accept their style requirements, regardless whether it is
functional a dysfunctional.
When the style requirements are
dysfunctional the best strategy often is to figure out a way of circumventing
the dysfunctionality, while adhering to the requirements. This can sometimes be done with careful
selection of words, and structuring sentences and paragraphs for maximum
comprehension. This might require a
trial and error process, and a number of drafts, until the best possible result
is obtained. When dealing with
dysfunctional style requirements, the best possible results may not be perfect.
Summing Up: The Passive Voice In Lab Reports And Scientific Journals
As stated above, the passive
voice is often required in certain types of scientific writing, such as lab
reports, and descriptions of experimental procedures written for scientific
journals. These requirements can
sometimes interfere with the communication process, to varying degrees. However, in some cases it may facilitate
the writing and communication process.
The important idea to understand
is, sometimes the passive voice facilitates
the communication process, and it might make the writing tasks simpler. However, sometimes the use of the passive voice
makes a sentence, a paragraph, or an entire document, difficult to
understand. It can obscure the
individuals who performed a task, such as the people who set up an
experiment. However, this may be
okay, if such information is irrelevant.
It is usually necessary to follow
the required writing style, even if it is somewhat dysfunctional. In general, in scientific writing for
formal journal articles, and for lab reports, it is best to use the passive
voice, when describing the methods, procedures, and experimental results. In other situations, it is probably best
to minimize the use of the passive voice.
For more information on this topic, see the following websites:
Websites On Scientific Documents, Passive Voice, And Related Concepts
There are
website links on this page that will not be verbalized
Search phrase with Google: The passive voice and scientific writing http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+passive+voice+and+scientific+writing&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/grammar/passive.html
Words
on website: Using the Passive Voice in
Scientific Writing
http://www.cvrti.utah.edu/~macleod/writing/passive-letters.html Words on website: Comments on
the passive voice from the journal Nature - three letters
http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/passivevoice.html Words on website: Passive Voice What this handout is about...
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/grammar/g_actpass.html Words on website: Active and
Passive Voice
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/passive.htm Words on website: The Passive Voice
Search phrase with Google: Laboratory reports and the
passive voice http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Laboratory+reports+and+the+passive+voice&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Chem/Courses/labreports.htm Words on website: Guidelines
for Writing a Formal Laboratory Report
http://www.uah.edu/eh301/passive_voice_lab.htm
Words on website: The Issue of Passive Voice in Lab
Reports Scientists discourage first person pronouns (I, we) in lab
reports, which often leads to passive voice.
4
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Chapter 3, Writing And The Biological Sciences:
Articles For Laypeople
STRUCTURE OF MAGAZINES
AND NEWSPAPER ARTICLES IN BIOLOGY AND HEALTH SCIENCE
Of course the exact style requirements
for articles intended for laypeople, varies with the publication. However, articles in biology and health
science intended for laypeople are generally written just like conventional
magazine articles. Most newspaper
and magazine articles more or less conform to the style requirements explained
in the following paragraph.
A Description Of Typical Style Requirements For Lay Newspapers And
Magazines
Usually, a leading statement,
consisting of two or three sentences is placed at the beginning of newspaper
and magazine articles, to attract the reader. This is called the lead. This is followed by a brief
introduction. Then there are
usually a number of main paragraphs.
Often the material is written in descending order of importance, in the
main paragraphs. At the end of the
article there is a brief conclusion.
The
sentence structure used in most lay publications is relatively short. The passive voice is usually avoided, or
minimized, and the articles in this category are primarily written in the
active voice. Technical wording is
also avoided, whenever possible.
When any technical terminology or phrasing is used, it is briefly
explained. Mathematical concepts
and calculations are generally excluded from these articles.
If you want more information on
writing, articles for laypeople see the following websites.
Websites On Writing Biology And Health Science Articles For The
General Public.
There are
website links on this page that will not be verbalized
Search phrase with Google: how to write articles in the
biological sciences for laypeople (fix) http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=how+to+write+articles+in+the+biological+sciences+for+laypeople&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
Search phrase with Google: how to write articles on health http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=how+to+write+articles+on+health
This website consists of one or more search
pages, with many links to other websites.
If you do not find what you want on this website, you can change the
search phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above
web address. After changing the
search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see a different set of
websites.
http://www.doctoryourself.com/write_articles.html Words on website:
How to Write Your Own Health Articles
Search phrase with Yahoo: Writing basic articles in the
biological sciences
}} {{Pause=1}}.
5 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 4, Writing And The Biological Sciences:
Formal Scientific Documents
THE STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL
SCIENTIFIC DOCUMENTS, SUCH AS JOURNAL ARTICLES, AND SCIENTIFIC REPORTS
Scientific journal articles, lab reports,
and similar documents are more or less written with approximately the same style
requirements. However, each
publisher, employer, or instructor, may require variations from the general
style requirements described in this section. The idea is to learn the general style
requirements, so you can understand the specific requirements demanded by
publications, employers, and instructors, for the various types of scientific
documents. In general, a small to
modest modification of the style explained below can satisfy the style
requirements for most journal articles, lab reports, and similar scientific
documents. However, you must
evaluate the requirements in each situation, before you start writing.
Structure And Style Requirements For Journal Articles And Similar
Scientific Documents
Most journal articles, and
similar scientific documents, require a descriptive
title, an
abstract,
followed by an introduction, in the beginning of the
document. This is followed by the
main body text consisting of the following section: methods
and materials, results, and discussion. At the end of the discussion, there is a conclusion that may
contain recommendations for future research. This is followed by acknowledgments, literature
cited, and
the appendices. This is somewhat oversimplified, and the
following paragraphs will provide more detail.
The Passive and Active Voice In Scientific Documents
The passive voice is generally
used to describe experiments. For example, the chicken eggs were injected
with the virus and allowed to incubate for six days. Most publishers, employers, and
instructors, in this case would consider the active voice, incorrect. This appears to be the result of
tradition, but it might also be quite practical in some cases. That is, the passive voice conceals the
individuals who carried out the steps of the experiment, which in some cases
may be carried out by many individuals, including students. The writer of the research may not even
know who performed the various tasks involved with the experiment. In addition, the passive voice conveys
the idea that the research and the results obtained are independent of any
individual. This implies that
others can duplicate the experiment, if they have appropriate knowledge, the
needed staff, and the required equipment.
However, from a purely practical
point of view, the above could be precisely stated in the active voice as: We injected the chicken eggs with the
virus, and then we put the eggs in an incubator for six days. Nevertheless, it is generally necessary
to follow the style requirements that are imposed on you, whatever they may be,
if you want to have your work excepted.
This can sometimes be dysfunctional, as explained in the previous
chapter, especially when there are absolute requirements. However, it is usually easier to write
technical material in the passive voice.
A Descriptive Title That Describes The Content Of The Document
The title should describe the
article in an accurate way to the potential readers. Sometimes it is even possible to
delineate the outcome of the research in the title. This usually necessitates a relatively
long title. However, you should not
make the title any longer than necessary to achieve the above objectives.
When you are creating your title,
keep in mind both the reader and computer searching devices. If you used search engines frequently on
the Internet, this might intuitively help you to create titles that will be
appropriately picked up by computerized searching devices. Your title should contain keywords that
relate to the content of the article.
This also involves avoiding words in your
title that will mislead search engines or the reader.
A technique that I sometimes use
when creating titles is to provide a descriptive title and subtitle. This involves a title that describes the
material, which is followed by a subtitle that clarifies the description in the
title, and/or provides additional information. This is especially useful if you write
books or any other document where you have the freedom to use this
technique. With most scientific
journal articles, a subtitle probably would not be acceptable by potential
publishers.
In magazine articles for the
general public, sensational titles might be considered desirable by the
publisher. However, in scientific
journal articles, and similar documents, sensational titles should not be
intentionally created. Sometimes
the title will sound sensational, even if that was not your objectives. When this is the case, if the material
is not truly revolutionary, or of great value, or as sensational as implied by
the title, it might be best to reword the title.
There are many other ways that
titles can be inappropriate, which are too subtle to describe. Asking knowledgeable colleagues can help
you evaluate the appropriateness of a title. However, the title is not an extremely
critical portion of the document, because it can be changed at any time, by the
writer or publisher. It is even
sometimes feasible to provide several titles to a publisher, and let them
choose which is most appropriate.
The above does not imply that the
initial title is not important, because a poorly written title may interfere
with an appropriate evaluation of your work. An inadequate title can even convince a
publisher not to review your article.
The Name Of The Writer And Credentials And Affiliations
After the title, the author of
the article presents his name, credentials, and the relevant organizations that
he or she has been involved with, such as universities, hospitals, research
organizations, etc. If these
credentials and affiliations are impressive, it might help in getting the
article published, and it may also attract readers to the article, once it is
published. However, some scientific
publications, review potential articles for their journals, blindly, which
usually consists of concealing the author's name, credentials and affiliations. This is done to be certain that the
reviewers evaluate the article and related research by its content and quality,
and not by the author’s previous achievements or prestige. Placing the writer’s credits and
affiliations in one location in the document, make it easier for potential
publishers to either conceal the information, for a blind review, or to
evaluate it, for publishers that have the opposite philosophy.
An Abstract For Scientific Documents
The abstract
is a short summary of the article, and it includes the experimental
results. The abstract is usually the
first thing that a person reads, after the title of the article. A well written abstract is very
important and quite useful for anyone that is searching through scientific
literature. It reveals the content
of the article and the results of research in a few sentences, or about 150 to
300 words. This helps the reader
decide if they have found the right information, and if they should invest
time, and in some cases *money, to read the entire article.
*Abstracts of journal articles
are especially useful for people doing research on the Internet. That is, it is important to understand
the contents of an article from the abstract, before reading the main
article, because most journals charge a substantial fee to obtain a copy of an
article, or read it on the Internet, unless you are a subscriber to the
Journal. This can range from $10 to
$40, depending on the Journal and the article.
Writing a good abstract can
sometimes be quite difficult. The
reason for this is the writer is often faced with objectives that are
contradictory. This involves,
explaining a complex experiment or scientific study, in
reasonable detail, but very briefly. It is sometimes not possible to obtain
these contradictory objectives, especially when a publication has limitations on
the number of words you can use in an abstract. The best strategy is to think of the
needs of potential readers of the work.
Then write the abstract with this idea in mind.
Using the trial and error
process, and writing several drafts of the abstract, will probably produce the
best results, especially if you can test your efforts on knowledgeable
colleagues. Keep in mind, the
number of people that read your journal article might be partly determined by
the quality of your title and abstract.
Scientific reports delineating
the progress of research efforts may be required by employers of engineers,
scientists, or other researchers.
These reports may be written in a way that is similar to the general
description described in this section.
However, instead of an abstract, these documents may contain an
executive summary. The executive
summary might be more or less similar to an abstract, but it may have to be
written in layman terminology, so the executive staff that allocates the money
for the research, can understand the document.
To write a good executive
summary, and an in-house research report, it is necessary to understand your
readers, and there background. It
is usually feasible to obtain such information, by asking the executive staff,
and/or other employees, appropriate questions.
Scientific documents that are
written for in-house assessment of scientific research, ideally should be
presented to the executive staff in one or more face-to-face meetings. This should be done with the goal of
explaining the report, and answering questions.
The
Introduction Of A Journal Article Or Other Scientific Document
The introduction usually presents
the hypothesis, purpose of the research, or the problem that the research deals
with. It may also include a brief
history of relevant facts, such as the history of a problem, or prior
experiments that dealt with the same or similar problem. This can also involve a brief
explanation of how the research or experiment is similar and different to prior
experiments.
The introduction generally should
outline the purpose of the research, such as what questions are to be answered
by the research. For example, is
drug-X useful in treating disease-Y, and if it is, how effective is it compared
to other drugs? Questions of this
type can be answered by experimentation.
When creating research plans it
might be a good idea to think of the introduction, and the questions that you
are trying to answer with your research.
This
section should provide all the information that is needed for a knowledgeable
individual, with the required resources, to reproduce the experiment. This includes the materials, techniques
and equipment used for the experiment.
Any procedure, physical location, type of equipment that might have
possibly influenced the results, should also be stated. This section should provide a reasonable
level of detail about the methods and procedures, and equipment used for the
research. In some cases, describing
equipment, with the brand name and model number, might be relevant. When research is conducted outdoors, the
precise locality might be important, and should be reported in your
document. Also, for outdoor
studies, the season, and dates, are important, as well as the weather
conditions during the research.
As the name implies, the results
of the research are presented in the results section. The results are presented in an
objective way, just as they were obtained from the research. This includes all the data that was
obtained, regardless of whether or not it supports your hypothesis, or suggests
success or failure of your experiment.
That is in this section the results are just presented, without any
interpretations. The implications
and interpretations of the results are presented in the discussion section.
Should You Report Extraneous Data (Or Noise) Obtained From Your
Research, In The Results Section?
Extraneous data, (noise) should
also be reported in the results section, in most cases, especially if you are
not certain of the factors that produced the noise. The reason for this is it is not always
possible to be certain what is meaningless data, or noise. The concept of noise is relative. This implies that noise can become
meaningful data sometimes, if you understand it, and know how to interpret
it. By presenting this information
you provide the opportunity for others to interpret your results in many
different ways, which sometimes leads to new experiments and discoveries.
However, in the discussion
section you should indicate or explain what portions of your data you believe
to be noise. Very often with this
information, others can reproduce your experiment with better controls, and
equipment that eliminate the uncertainty produced by noise.
An Explanatory Note On Extraneous Data: What Is Noise?
In case the reader is not familiar
with the concept of noise, as discussed in the previous paragraph, I will
explain further. What I mean by extraneous
data, or noise is data that does not relate to an experiment, from
the point of view of the researcher, but is obtained during the
experiment. For example, a
photomicrograph of a newly discovered microorganism can contain noise
consisting of tiny bits of debris surrounding the cell. Very often noise obscures to varying
degrees the data that the researcher is looking for. With the above example, the tiny bits of
debris can make it more difficult to discern the detailed structure of the
cell. However, it may turn out that
the tiny bits of debris are significant data, and not noise, at least
from the perspective of another researcher. It may turn out that the tiny bits of
debris surrounding the cell is its source of nourishment, excreted waste
products, or spores produced by the cell.
This example illustrates why the extraneous data should be
reported.
There are usually various ways of
eliminating noise in experimental results, but this should be done with
caution, as suggested above. With
the above example of the photomicrograph, the noise consisting of the tiny bits
of debris could be removed with photo editing software. When noise is eliminated from data in
this way, it can still be reported, such as by stating that the micrograph was
treated with photo editing software, to remove tiny specks that surrounded the
cell, which appeared to be debris.
Ideally, the original photograph, and the treated one should be
displayed in the experimental results.
There are also various ways of
eliminating noise before it occurs, or reducing it, which is the
ideal approach. For example, using
a perfectly clean microscope slide, with high-quality equipment can prevent
noise in photomicrographs.
The idea to focus on is to design
experiments in such a way that the signal-to-noise ratio is minimized. Focusing on the ideas presented above,
and improving the signal-to-noise ratio before the experiment starts, will make
it much easier when you are working on the results section of your paper.
In the discussion section the
results, and their implications, are discussed. This can involve providing answers to
the following questions: what do
the results mean? To what extent do
the results support your hypothesis?
Are the results accurate, or could have the results been influenced by
extraneous factors, or less than optimal conditions for the research. Anything else that relates to the
results is also presented in the discussion section.
Concluding Information Of A Scientific Document
The conclusion may or may not be specifically
defined as a distinct section, in a scientific document. That is the conclusion may be simply the
concluding statements of the discussion section, or it may be a distinct
section with a title such as, conclusion, summation and conclusion,
summation, etc. However, for the
purposes of delineation and explanation of writing style, I will treat the
conclusion as a distinct section.
The conclusion may contain a
summing up of the key points of the paper.
It can also contain recommendations for the application of the
information that was obtained by the experiment, and/or recommendations for
future research. The conclusion can
also suggest the limitations of the experiment, and how future research can be
conducted without the limitations.
For example: Noise may have interfered with the photo micrographic
studies, as a result of the inadequacies of the microscope. In such a case, the researcher might conclude
his paper by stating that duplicating the experiment with a high-quality microscope
or an electron scanning microscope might provide more precise data.
The Acknowledgments Section Of A Journal Article Or Other Scientific
Document
In the acknowledgments section
thanks or credit may be given to anyone that helped with the research. This can include people that provided
advice, the use of facilities or equipment, or any other type of
assistance. Scientific documents do
not always have an acknowledgments section. Sometimes, the researcher received
little or no assistance from others, and thus, there is nobody to give credit
to.
The Literature Cited Section Of A Scientific Document
The literature cited section,
provides information on material that was mentioned in your document. Generally, when literature is cited the
authors second name, are placed next to the statement, which correspond to
additional information in the literature cited section of your document. The authors name may be placed in a
footnote in your document, depending on the style requirements that you are
dealing with. The literature cited
section usually consists of an alphabetical listing of the authors by last
name. This allows the reader to
find detailed information about the material and author you cited in your work.
There are two primary objectives
involved with the literature cited section, which should be kept in mind when
you are writing this portion of your document. One is to provide credit to the original
author of material that was quoted or paraphrased in a scientific
document. This is partly done to
avoid the misconception that you are taking credit for the works of other
authors. The other objective is to
provide the reader with the information needed to obtain the original material
that was cited. To do this it is
necessary to provide all the information that is needed to obtain the original
article. This generally includes
the author's name, the title of the work, the publisher of the work, and the
date of publication.
Exactly how to create a
literature cited section in a scientific document is determined by the style
requirements that relate to your publisher, employer, or instructor.
Works Cited In Electronic Documents
There can
be style restrictions in electronic documents that are similar to conventional
journal articles. However, in electronic
documents, you might have more freedom and versatility in citing the work of
other authors, in some cases, especially if you are using your own website to
present your material. You can
provide hyperlinks under your quoted or paraphrased statement, which can be
linked to the works cited section of your document. In the works cited section, you can have
hyperlinks to the original work if it is available on the Internet.
Another alternative, which I
believe is the ideal, is to avoid the literature cited section altogether in
electronic documents. When this is
done, you simply provide any relevant data about the original work, and a hyperlink
that takes the reader directly to the original material you cited. The following is one example of how this
can be done.
The following quote from http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html#literaturecited
Online Resources for Biology
describes the basic structure of the traditional literature cited section:
“Function: The Literature Cited section gives an alphabetical
listing (by first author's last name) of the references that you actually cited
in the body of your paper.”
There are many other ways that literature can be cited in electronic
documents, providing you are not restricted by style requirements. For example, when a website provides
exceptionally useful or interesting information that is relevant to your
document, you can state this directly in your text, and provide a hyperlink
directly to the source.
Appendix Of A Scientific Documents (Appendices Is Plural) (Singular Is
Appendix)
All scientific documents do not
have an appendix. Basically the
appendix is a section where you can place information that is not an essential
part of your paper. For example,
you can put additional information in the appendix about equipment, procedures,
and problems you encountered during your research. You can provide additional explanations
about the mathematics, and software you used in your experiments. You can place sketches, diagrams,
photographs, and any other type of graphics that are not essential to your paper,
in the appendix. In general, you
can probably put almost anything about your research in your appendices that
does not fit into the main body of your paper. However, you must be certain that you
are not placing essential information in the appendix, because it is a section
for supplemental information.
The above might incorrectly imply
that the appendix is a disorderly place where you can throw superfluous
fragments of information. The
appendix should be carefully created, and organized so the reader can find the
information he or she is looking for without great difficulty.
Most of the published journal
articles I have seen do not have an appendix. The authors may have presented their
original work to their publishers with appendices, but this material may have
not been published. Publication
space in the traditional hardcopy journals is expensive. In addition, it is not wise to put a
large amount of nonessential information in any type of hard copy mass-produced
document, because it can result in a bulky and confusing journal that is not
attractive to its readers.
Publishes are of course aware of this, and they will probably not
publish appendices in most cases.
However, it might be quite
sensible and useful to write an appendix for journal articles and other
scientific documents that are presented for publication. The reason for this is an appendix can
provide publishers and reviewers additional information about your research,
which may be important if they suggest that you rewrite your article. This could involve suggestions about providing
more detail in your paper, which may involve taking some material from the
appendices and putting it in the main body of the text.
Appendices are most useful when
publication space is irrelevant, such as for in-house scientific documents, and
for grant proposals. This also
sometimes applies to websites, which can provide a hyperlink for the
appendices, so it will not interfere with the main text of the document.
In the case of in-house documents
and grant proposals, there is generally no problem, if the appendix is several
times longer than the main document, providing it is clearly delineated as a
separate unit. For example,, if an
executive committee or a reviewer in a granting agency receives a 60 page
document, he or she might reject the proposal just to avoid reading the
document. However, if it is clear
that the main document is only 5 pages, and the remaining 55 pages is
supplemental or optional information in an appendix, they will probably read
the five-page document. They may
also thumb through the 55-page appendices and glance at some of the
material.
When submitting scientific
documents with large appendices, it may be advisable to present the main paper
as one unit, and the appendices as separate and independent units. This involves the main paper stapled or
bound together in a folder. The
appendix is bound together in a similar way, as a separate physical
entity. With this strategy, the appendix
should have its own cover page in this case, with the word appendices and the
name of the paper and author. In
some cases, it may even be advisable to indicate right on the cover page that
the information is optional. To
emphasize that the appendices contains additional information that is optional,
you can have the main paper and the appendices delivered in separate
envelopes.
You must determine in each
situation what the best strategy is in each situation. Keep in mind what works well for one
situation might be inappropriate or dysfunctional for another situation. This actually applies to everything that
was discussed in this chapter.
For more information consult the
following websites.
Websites On Writing Scientific Documents
There are a large number of
websites that provide information for writing scientific documents. The following list is an example, of
some of these websites. If you want
more information on writing scientific documents, the hyperlinks in this list
will provide the information.
There are
website links on this page that will not be verbalized
Search phrase with Google: How to write journal
articles for the biological sciences http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=How+to+write+journal+articles+for+the+biological+sciences&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/report/reportform.html
Writing Research Papers
http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&issn=1549-1676
PLoS Medicine
http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521823234
How to Write and Illustrate a Scientific Paper
Online Resources for Biology, (Home page http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/ ) Is a very useful source of information. It has a
detailed discussion on writing scientific documents in the following webpage:
http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWsections.html
http://pubs.asce.org/editors/journal/generalresource/articleparts.htm#conclusions
Words on website: Parts of a Journal Article
http://www.wellesley.edu/Library/Research/Classes/bio-intro-cell.html Words
on website:
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/report/reportform.html Words on website: Writing Research Papers
http://www.biolsci.monash.edu.au/undergrad/docs/ReportWritingGuidelines.doc Words on website: Report Writing Guidelines for
the
http://www.asabe.org/pubs/29_Jour_Manuscript_Format.html
American Society of Agricultural Engineers
http://www.greenwood.com/catalog/GP3040.aspx Words on website:
How to Write
and Publish a Scientific Paper
6 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
AN OPTIMIZED SEQUENCE FOR
CREATING A JOURNAL ARTICLE OR SCIENTIFIC DOCUMENT
In the previous chapter, I delineated a typical scientific document, in
sequence, starting from the top, descriptive
title, an
abstract, introduction, methods
and materials, results, discussion, conclusion, acknowledgments, literature
cited, and the appendices. This might falsely suggest that scientific documents are written from the top down
starting with the title followed by the abstract, materials section, etc. Actually, this is a good way to describe
scientific documents, but it is not a good way to write them.
In the following paragraphs, I
will present a series of steps involved with creating a scientific
document. However, the optimum
sequence of steps in writing any type of document is somewhat subjective. That is what is optimal for one person
may not work well for another. Thus
the sequence that I am presenting is one way of creating a scientific
document. However, it is quite
practical, as you will see in the following paragraphs, and probably a small
modification of it, that relates to your personal writing style and preferences
will result in the ideal method for you.
Step One For Creating A Scientific Document: creating Good Research
Plans
The first step in creating a
scientific document begins well before the research and the writing
starts. That is, the first thing
that you work on, is carefully designing the experiment or study, so it will
most likely result in interesting or useful information, to write about.
How To Create, Or Improve, Your Research Plans
A method that I call informal
research can be helpful in creating good research plans. That is, sometimes trying several
small-scale, informal experiments, with relatively low expenditures of money
and time, can suggest what to study in a formal research project, and what to
avoid. For example, if you have
several hunches on the effects of chemicals on green plants, you can run a
series of informal experiments with many different chemicals and plants, to
determine which chemicals to study in a formal research project. This would allow you to focus your
formal research on the chemicals that have produced interesting and/or
potentially useful effects on the plants.
It's important to understand, that the results of such experiments
are not intended for publication, because informal procedures are relatively
quick and easy by definition, but they are much less precise than formal
research methods.
The above concept, of informal
research, can also be applied to studies that do not involve experimentation,
such as surveys, and observational studies. For example, if your initial research
plans are to study the behavior of beavers in their natural environment, using
photographic methods, you can easily conduct a small-scale informal study to
see if this is feasible research for you.
Another example, if you have a hunch that people who eat large
quantities of food-X are more likely to develop disease-Y, you can easily carry
out an informal study of a relatively small group of people to determine if
your hunch might be correct.
One of the simplest and easiest
techniques to improve any type of plans, including those for research involves
asking yourself a series of questions to stimulate your thinking. For example, what are all the possible
ways that I can improve my research plans?
What are the most likely results of my planned research? Is there any way I can revise my plans
to obtain better or more important research results? In general, the more self questioning and
thinking you do the better your research plans will probably be.
Obtaining the opinion and advice
of experts and knowledgeable colleagues can also be helpful in improving
research plans.
Ideally, all of the methods
mentioned above should be utilized, or at least considered when creating
research plans.
Step Two For Creating A Scientific Document, Obtaining Funding For
Your Research
If you have to obtain funding for
your research, it may be advisable to create your research plans with this in
mind. Sometimes slight changes in
research plans can greatly increase the chances of obtaining funding. For example, if you want to do research
on cell division and cellular reproduction, you can probably increase your
chances of obtaining funding if you focus your study on a medical problem. In this case, the research could be
changed to cell division and cellular reproduction, in relation to cancerous
tumors. Alternatively, the research
can be delineated as a study of all types of cellular reproduction, with a
focus on cancer cells. This change
would interest many funding organizations that deal with cancer and medical
research. It should be understood,
that this concept is not limited to medicine. For example, modifying research so that
it is potentially useful for agriculture and food production may also result in
greater funding opportunities.
Using the above example, on cell division and cellular reproduction, the
research could be modified to cellular reproduction and the related growth rate
in food crops. It is even sometimes
possible to modify research plan so diverse funding agencies will be interested
in it. Using the above example once
again, the research could be modified to a study on cellular division and
reproduction of plant and animal cells, with a focus on the growth rate of
cancerous tumors, and food crops.
This modification would increase the chances of obtaining funding from
medical foundations, and organizations interested in agriculture.
Keep in mind that all of the
above examples are hypothetical.
The actual modification of research plans must be carried out with a realistic
focus on feasibility. The concept
of feasibility, actually applies to the creation of research plans in
general. That is you must consider
the probability, or improbability, of obtaining funding with your credentials,
qualifications and experience. You
also must consider if you have the technical knowledge needed to carry out your
planned research, and/or your ability to obtain technical assistance.
Grant proposals for research
projects can be more or less similar to journal articles, and other scientific
documents, but the research has not been carried out, and the results are of
course unknown. However, if you, or
even others, carried out similar research previously, this might be helpful in
obtaining funding, if you proposed research is likely to provide additional
information based on previous studies.
Grant proposals must be very
persuasive and convincing in every possible way, to maximize your chances of
obtaining funding for your research.
To achieve this, it is usually necessary to determine the style
requirements of the funding agency that you are submitting your proposal
to. It is also of course necessary
to submit your proposal to the right funding agencies. To do this, you must find out what types
of research that the various funding agencies are most likely to support. It is generally advisable to submit your
request to many funding agencies, with the hope of finding one that will fund
your research.
The overall quality and structure
of your grant proposal can determine whether or not you obtain funding. A grant proposal can be more or less
written as a conventional scientific document, as presented in the previous
chapter. However, it must be
persuasive, and it should show the potential value of your research to the
scientific community, and/or the general public. For more information on writing grant
proposals, and obtaining funding for research consult the following websites.
Websites On How To Write Research Grant Proposals, And Obtain Funding
For Research
There are website links on this
page that will not be verbalized =
Search phrase with Google: How to write a grant
proposal, for scientific research http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=How+to+write+a+grant+proposal%2C+for+scientific+research&btnG=Google+Search
http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/grant_proposals.html Words on website: The grant
writing process
http://www.bioscience.org/current/grant.htm Words on website: GUIDELINES FOR
WRITING GRANT APPLICATIONS
http://www.acfas.org/pubresearch/articles/articles-proposal.htm Words on website: How to Write a Good
Grant Proposal
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/funding/write_grant_doc.htm Words on website: How to Write
a Research Project Grant Application
http://www.councilscienceeditors.org/members/securedDocuments/v22n1p12-13.pdf Words on website: Writing a Journal Article, Dissertation, or Research-
Grant
http://www.research.umich.edu/proposals/PWG/pwgcomplete.html Words on website:
7 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Third Step For Creating A Scientific Document, Carrying Out The
Research And Taking Notes
The third step is carrying out
your research, and carefully recording data that will be helpful in writing the
related journal article, or research document. In some cases, your notes can be
organized in a way that is similar to a typical scientific document. When this is done, you simply record
your data and experiences and place your notes in a sequence that is similar to
a scientific article. For example,
when you are setting up the experiment, you can write notes for the materials
and methods section of your document.
When you are obtaining the results of your experiment, you can take
notes for the results section. When
you are thinking about your results, you can provide notes for the discussion,
and conclusion of your scientific document. This technique might make it easier for
you to write your document when you have completed your research, and it may
also help you write a higher quality and more accurate research paper.
Raw data obtained from
experiments and scientific studies, generally does not represent meaningful
information. However, if you use
the technique described under the previous heading your data will most likely
be less raw, and more organized in terms of useful information. Regardless of whether or not you used
the above technique, you still will have to work on your data. That is, before you write your document,
it is necessary to organize and arranged the data into relevant information,
which ideally should be done to the highest feasible level.
The first step in organizing data
into meaningful information is done so you can make sense of your experimental
results. The second step involves
organizing the data to a still higher level of information so you can write a
document that other people will understand. For example, you may have obtained a
series of measurements from your experiment, such as changes in the rate of
plant growth when the roots were exposed to various chemicals. This can be changed into meaningful
information by delineating the impact of the
various chemicals on the plants. This would have to be coupled with the exposure
time of each plant to a specific chemical. In addition, it would be necessary to provide
the normal growth rates of the plants that were used as controls, and
compare them with the experimental group.
Explanations, of why and how the chemicals affected the rate of growth
of the plants should be provided.
This can involve hypothetical concepts, perhaps suggesting future
research, when the actual cause-and-effect dynamics involved with the change of
plant growth has not been proven.
All of this would have to eventually be combined into understandable and
coherent sentences and paragraphs, when you write your paper, which should
represent highly organized information, and not simply scientific data.
Another way of understanding the concept
presented in the above subheading is to think of a jigsaw puzzle. In the case of a jigsaw puzzle the data
consists of small pieces of cardboard shaped in many different ways, and the
organized information is the picture that is seen when the jigsaw puzzle is
properly assembled. That is, with
the jigsaw puzzle, organizing the data into meaningful information, involves
assembling the jigsaw puzzle. The
same process applies to research data, which first must be organized into a
level where you can make sense of it.
Then you must further organize it so others can understand it, and
eventually you must further organize this information into understandable
sentences, paragraphs, and a document that will be accepted by publishers,
employers or instructors.
Unlike the jigsaw puzzle, used
above as an analogy, research data can sometimes be organized into information
in more than one way. A
conventional jigsaw puzzle can only be organized into a coherent structure in
only one way. Sometimes research
data is similar to a set of building blocks, and by arranging the data in
different ways, you can obtain different information. This information may represent either
additional discoveries or contradictory or alternative interpretations of
results.
The Fifth Step For Creating A Scientific Document, Is To Start Writing Any Section You
Prefer, Except For The Abstract And Title
Usually, the best strategy is to
start writing wherever your thought processes produce a flow of words and
ideas. For example, you might have
a clear focus on words and ideas that relate to the materials section, and in
this case, that is where you should start writing. On the other hand, you may have a clear
focus on your experimental results, and if this is the case, you should start
writing the results section first. When
you complete one section, proceed to any other section that produces an easy
flow of thoughts, ideas, sentences and paragraphs. Keep in mind that you can always return
to a section to modify it, or complete it or even rewrite it if necessary.
You should not start writing your
title or abstract, until you have completed your entire document, because they
are supposed to represent as precisely as possible, the material you have in
your paper. Thus, it is not
possible to be certain of the final structure and information in your document,
until you have completed it. Keep
in mind that when organizing data into written language, new insights and
information can develop, that were not apparent before you started to write
your document.
However, if you feel that you
must start writing in sequence, starting from the title, and abstract, you may
simply have too revise the material you wrote. Starting at the beginning might be quite
functional for some individuals, or it might be occasionally sensible for you
with certain types of material and documents. Writing the title and abstract first can
be a way of outlining or planning an article, at least for some people. If this is the case with you, it is
fine, but keep in mind to get a good abstract that accurately delineates what
is in the article, it will probably be necessary to revise or even rewrite your
title and abstract, when you completed your paper. This may not be much of a task, because
this will usually involve less than 300 words.
If you are really not sure where
you want to start when you are writing your document, I recommend that you
consider the following sequence.
Probably in most cases the best place to start working on your document
is in the methods and materials section, then proceeding to the results
section, followed by the discussion and conclusion. Then write the remaining sections of the
document (except for the title and abstract) in any order you choose
(introduction, acknowledgments, literature cited, and the appendices). After the above is completed write the
abstract, then create a title. When
all this is completed, carefully go over your entire document, and if necessary
revise it, so all the sections fit together properly, and the entire text is
optimized for readability and the required style of your publishers and
readers.
How To Deal With Writer's Block And Sticking Points When Writing A
Scientific Document.
Writing any type of document from
the beginning and proceeding towards the conclusion, is not always the best
strategy, as explained above.
Attempting to write any document from the beginning to the end is likely
to contribute to writer's block.
That is when you restrict your writing sequence from the top down, you
are likely to reach a sticking point, where you cannot find the right words to
express your thoughts, or perhaps where you do not have the needed
information. When this happens, you
can waste many hours or even days before you can resolve the sticking
point. This sometimes also leads to
procrastination, which probably is the result of the unpleasant feelings when
facing a problem that does not appear to have a solution. However, this problem is easily solved,
or it never really develops, when you are writing in a non-sequential
fashion. When you reach a sticking
point, with non-sequential writing, you simply start working on a different section
of the document, and return to the sticking point when you get the right words
and/or needed information.
Another useful strategy to deal
with sticking points is to write some temporary notes in your document by your
sticking points. This can involve a
couple of sentences, or even one or more paragraphs that is a rough draft,
which may be incomplete. When this
is done you will most likely find the right words sooner or later to present
your concept clearly.
You can also write notes in your
document next to a sticking point, indicating the information you must study to
resolve the sticking point. Even
when the cause of the problem is not missing information, reading the same or
similar information from different sources, might help you find the right words
to express the concept that you are trying to describe in written
language. Sometimes, seeing how
other authors expressed similar concepts can help you find the right words to
write the material you are working on.
Of course be certain not to use the words of other authors, unless they
are in quotation marks, and the original writer is credited.
The final step is reading over
your document, and checking for any last-minute corrections, before you submit
it. If you are submitting your
document to your employer, or an executive committee in your place of
employment, (in-house submission) you have completed your work. The same applies to those who are
submitting their document to an instructor. Perhaps, in both of these cases,
providing some verbal reinforcement of your material might be advisable. This is especially the case for in-house
submissions, where the people reading the document may not have an adequate
background to understand all of your material.
However, if you are submitting
your work to potential publishers, you have a challenging task, that often
results in frustration and rejection of the document. Thus in this case your work is far from
completed. Even if you eventually
succeed in getting a publisher, you will probably have to rewrite at least some
if not all of your document, to meet their publication requirements.
Generally it is quite difficult
to get any type of work published, especially in scientific journals. The reason for this is there are a large
number of people writing scientific articles, and there is not enough
publication space available.
Probably there are not even enough readers who would be interested in
reading all of the material that is submitted to scientific journals. In addition, many of the papers
submitted probably do not represent truly unique research, and are very similar
to previous published research.
People in the academic and scientific communities are sometimes put in a
position where they are more or less forced to write research papers, even if
they do not have adequate research to write about. The main interest in writing the paper
may be to keep a job, or to advance in a career. Motivations of this type result in a lot
of research papers, but not necessarily good scientific studies or good
articles.
Another factor that makes getting
a scientific article published very difficult is most scientific journals do
not accept simultaneous submissions.
For example, with conventional magazine articles intended for the
general public, it is possible to simultaneously submit an article to several
dozen publications with the hope that one will accept the article. However, with scientific journals, this
is usually not acceptable, probably because it takes a considerable amount of
effort to review a scientific article for possible publication in a
journal. Thus, it may be necessary
to submit a scientific article to a dozen journals, before it is published, but
each journal might hold the article for several months if not longer, before
they send out a rejection notice.
Thus, to have the article reviewed by a dozen journals, can take five or
10 years if not longer. This can
greatly reduce the chances of getting an article published, unless the research
is truly remarkable, or the author is simply lucky, or perhaps has
exceptionally good credentials and/or is famous. The above may not even be helpful in
many cases, because some scientific journals review articles blindly, where the
reviewer does not know the credentials or anything else about the author.
Self Publication On The Internet Is An
Almost anyone can self publish a
scientific article, or any other type of document, on the internet, for little
or no cost. This type of
publication makes your article available, at least in theory, to millions of
people throughout the world. However,
in practice, very few if any people will visit a website that is not famous, or
connected to a well-known publisher, a university, or major company, unless it
is extensively advertised. In
addition, there is little or no prestige (which often relates to job
opportunities in high salaries) associated with work that was self published on
the Internet, because anyone can place just about anything on the Internet
regardless of its validity or quality.
In addition, if you self publish an article on the Internet, most
scientific journals will not even consider it for publication, because usually
they are only interested in material that has never been published.
In spite of the disadvantages mentioned
above of self-publishing on the Internet, it is sometimes quite sensible. For example, if you have an article that
you submitted to many journals, with no success in obtaining publication, it
might be sensible to self publish that article on your own website. If you have articles that are
interesting, but not suitable for the journals, it would be sensible to publish
on the Internet. If you do not have
adequate funding, credentials, knowledge or experience, to engage in formal
research, or to get your papers accepted by journals, it makes sense to self
publish on the Internet.
When you self publish on the
Internet, your work can still have some value, when you in effect engage in
your own word-of-mouth advertising, and inform potential and actual employers,
as well as colleagues about your website.
If you are involved in teaching of any kind, your articles may have some
value to your students. All of this
of course, will probably not provide the benefits and rewards obtained from
successful publications in journals.
8 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
BASIC IDEAS ABOUT
MICROSOFT WORD’S CHECKERS
Most people that use Microsoft
Word are probably familiar with the basic functionality of the spelling,
grammar and style checker. The checker
is included in the Microsoft word software package. However many people do not know about
the advanced features of Microsoft Word’s checker. I will start with the basics, and
proceed to the advanced functionality of the spelling, grammar and style
checker, in the following paragraphs.
HOW TO USE MICROSOFT WORD’S SPELL CHECKER
The Basic Features Of The Spellchecker
The most basic feature in
Microsoft Word’s spelling checker is a wavy red line under a word, which indicates
a spelling error. The red line is also seen when a word appears twice in
succession. See the following
examples.
When you see a red line under a word in a Microsoft Word document, left
click on it, and the dialog box will appear, as seen in the following screen
shots. The dialog box usually
provides a number of correctly spelled words that match the misspelled
word. The user chooses the correct
word. However, the correct word
will not be displayed, if it is not in Microsoft Word's spelling
dictionary. See the following
screenshots.
If a word appears twice in succession, in a Microsoft Word document, you
will see the following dialog box, after you left click on the word with the
red line.
When you spell a word correctly
that is not in Microsoft Word's spelling dictionary, there will be a red wavy
line under it, as if it was a spelling error. This often happens with words and names
that are uncommon. However, even if
the word is technical it is often in the Microsoft Word spellchecker
dictionary. For example, many, (but
not all) of the commonly used biological terms are in Microsoft Word's
dictionary, such as DNA, RNA, prokaryotes, eukaryotes, paramecium, amoeba,
chlorophyll, chloroplasts, mitochondria, cytoplasm, etc.
When a word is not in the
Microsoft spelling dictionary, you can add it. That is, if you see a red wavy line
under a word, and you are sure that you spelled it correctly, you can add it to
Microsoft Word's spell checker dictionary.
To do this, left click on the word with the red wavy line under it,
and a dialog box will open. Scroll
down to the words Add to Dictionary, and left click on it. After this, the dialog box closes, and
the word will be in the spellchecker dictionary. See the following screenshot.
MICROSOFT WORD’S GRAMMAR AND STYLE CHECKER
How To Use Microsoft
Word's Grammar And Style Checker
Microsoft Word's grammar and style checker indicates
errors by placing a wavy green line under the problematic words and
phrases. If you left click on the
underlined words a dialog box will open, which will provide information to help
you correct the error. You can see
this in the following screenshots.
If you want more information
about your grammar or style error, left click on the word Grammar. (See the above screenshot.) After this, another dialog box will
appear that has a button with the word explain on it. Then, left click on the word explain,
and a box will pop up with information about your grammar or style error. You can see an illustration of the above
steps in the following screenshots.
Adjusting The Microsoft Word Grammar And Style Checker
The grammar and style checker in
Microsoft Word, can be adjusted for your needs. You can even turn the style checker on or
off, and leave the grammar checker on.
To make any of the above changes, you start by left clicking on Tools
(on the upper portion of your screen), and scrolling down to the word Options. Then left click on the word options, and
another dialog box will open. After
this click on the tab, that has the words Spelling and Grammar. You can see this in the following
screenshots.
Note the above dialog box also
provides the functionality of setting requirements for the grammar checker.
This dialog box has a tab on the left, which you can push down with the mouse,
to reveal the settings for the style checker. You can see this in the screenshot at
the end of this paragraph. The
style checker can even be turned on or off with the upper portion of this
dialog box.
The Passive Voice, And The Microsoft Word Style Checker
It is usually necessary to use
the passive voice when writing any type of scientific or technical
document. Some publishers and instructors
require the use of the passive voice when describing experiments. However, Microsoft Word style checker
will indicate an error, by putting a green wavy line under every phrase that is
in the passive voice. This can be
distracting, and it can prevent you from noting significant grammar and style
errors. There are two solutions to
this problem. The simplest one is
to turn the style checker off and only use the grammar checker. A better solution is to adjust the style
checker according to your needs. In
general, if you are writing any type of scientific or technical document, you
will do best if you simply remove the checkmark on the phrase: Passive
sentences, in the dialog box shown above.
The
following list of websites will provide more information on checking devices
for writing, and related concepts,
Search phrase with Google: How to use Microsoft Word's
spelling, grammar and style checker http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=How+to+use+Microsoft+Word%27s+spelling%2C+grammar+and+style+checker&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/word/CH101512471033.aspx
Words on website:
http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/help/HP101194671033.aspx
Words on website: Choose how spelling and grammar
checking work
http://www.ehow.com/how_10075_spell-checker-microsoft.html
Words on website: How to Use the Spell Checker in Microsoft Word
Search phrase with Google: Writing biological articles for
the general public http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Writing+biological+articles+for+the+general+public
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.wmich.edu/library/subject/classguide.php?subjectid=8&print=1
Words on website: Western Michigan University Biological Sciences
http://www.library.ubc.ca/hss/instruction/scholpop.pdf
Words on
website: Characteristics of Scholarly and Popular Writing
http://biotech.icmb.utexas.edu/
http://dbem.ws/WritingArticle.pdf Words on website: Writing the Empirical
Journal Article
http://biotech.icmb.utexas.edu/
Words on website: BioTech Life
sciences Reference Tools
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/312/7034/857/a Words on website: Successful
Scientific Writing: A Step-By-Step Guide for the Biological and Medical
Sciences
Search phrase with Google: How to write Journal
articles for the Biological Sciences http://www.google.com/search?q=How+to+write+Journal+articles+for+the+Biological+Sciences&hl=en&start=40&sa=N
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/tools/report/reportform.html Words on website: Writing Research
Papers Resources for learning technical writing
http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ433575&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ433575 Words on website: Introduce
Successful Library Assignments to Students in Biological Sciences
http://www.biolsci.monash.edu.au/undergrad/docs/EssayWritingGuidelines.doc Words on website:
http://www.usd.edu/library/subject/science.shtml Words on website: Biology Table
of Contents Getting Started Guides to Biological Literature
http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521823234 Words on website: Cambridge
Catalogue How to Write and Illustrate a Scientific Paper
Search phrase with Google Scholar: Write Journal
articles in medicine and Biology Advanced Scholar http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=Write+Journal+articles+in+medicine+and+Biology&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=kBUBRh1AWG4C&oi=fnd&pg=PR6&dq=Write+Journal+articles+in+medicine+and+Biology&ots=Mft5QmjEri&sig=_AQwUVfdRVi7TAixGVLUZcPnvFg#PPR5,M1 Words on website: How to Report
Statistics in Medicine: Annotated Guidelines for Authors
9 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 7, Writing And The Biological Sciences: The
Electronic Format
A DESCRIPTION OF THE
ELECTRONIC FORMAT, AND ITS ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL HARDCOPY
Introduction To The Electronic Format
With the development of computer technology, and the Internet, there is a
new format for documents and books of all types. This involves articles and books that
are viewed on a computer screen, which is the electronic format. The most obvious examples of the
electronic format is a website that contains articles.
Scientific Journal Articles And The Electronic Format
The electronic format appears to
be replacing at least some of the hard copy format used for scientific
documents. This becomes apparent
with formal scientific journals that display all the articles they publish on
their website. However, these
articles are presented in the simplest electronic format, which do not utilize
the many advantages of the latest technology. In spite of the fact that the articles
are in electronic format, they are essentially identical to hardcopy documents,
but the articles are read on the computer screen, or are printed before
reading.
The major advantage of the simple
electronic format used for journal articles, is the ease of searching for
information. There is no need to
leave your home or office to go to a library, and spend hours searching. You can easily search through the
journals with Google scholar, and a number of similar search engines. In addition, most journals provide a
searching device that searches through their published articles. Some of these searching devices are more
or less similar to conventional search engines, because they will also search
other journals for information.
The electronic format for journal
articles has one severe disadvantage over the older method of searching through
the library. When you find a
journal article in the library, it does not cost any money to read it. Generally, you can photocopy it, and
take it home and read it at your leisure.
With the electronic format on the Internet, when you find a journal
article, you may have to pay anywhere from $10 to $40 to read it. Some journals provide temporary access
such as 48 hours, to their articles for a fee, which sometimes can be more
economical if you have a number of articles to read from the same journal. Generally, you also can print the
articles. However, the high cost
can be a significant problem, if you have to examine a large number of
articles, from different journals.
Fortunately, most of the journals
do not charge for reading the abstracts of the articles. Another fortunate development is there
is a growing trend towards open access journal articles, where the user can
read and print the article without any fee. Nevertheless, most journal articles are
available only for a fee.
Variations Of The Electronic Format
There are many other variations
of the electronic format, besides the simple format used by most scientific
journals. This includes documents
that are created with presentation software, such as Microsoft's
PowerPoint. Software in this
category, present documents in terms of a series of slides, which usually
contain many colored graphics, with relatively few words. This can be especially useful for
instructors of the biological sciences, as well as other disciplines.
There are many types of
text-based software that are also designed to display color graphics, which are
used for electronic documents, including e-books. This includes conventional Microsoft
Word documents, and PDF files viewed with Adobe Reader. PDF files are a common format on
the Internet. However, the most common format used on
the Internet is HTML, which is automatically downloaded and opened by a
conventional Web browser, without any special effort from the user. The HTML format is very versatile, and
it allows the incorporation of sound, video, hyperlinks to files, software and
other websites, into a document, which can also include conventional text. The document you are reading is in the
HTML format.
All of the electronic formats
mentioned above, can be placed on CDs, DVDs, flash drives, the computer's hard
drive, as well as the Internet.
The Most Versatile Forms Of The Electronic Formats, Multimedia) Are
Not Used For Journal Articles, Probably Because Of Tradition.
Most scientific documents are
essentially presented to publishers in the traditional hardcopy format, or
simple electronic format, such as in a conventional Microsoft Word
document. When they are published
on the Internet in the electronic format, they retained the style and limitations
of the hard copy format. That is
when the electronic format is used, it appears to be limited by tradition, and
capabilities of the modern computer are not utilized. For example, it would be quite useful if
certain scientific documents had videos incorporated into them, along with the
text. Videos in documents would be
very useful for studies of wildlife, animal behavior in captivity, and some
microscopic studies. This type of
electronic format is called multimedia, and it is a commonly used
technology. Most modern computers
are designed for multimedia. The
multimedia format is routinely used for material created for laypeople on the
Internet. However, I have never
seen the multimedia format used for formal scientific documents.
Multimedia Should Not Be Thought
Of As An Alternative To Text, But It Can Be Used To Supplement Or Reinforce
Written Language
When the multimedia format is
utilized to its fullest, sound, video and graphics are not used to eliminate or
replace the text. That is, text is
used when it is the optimum way of conveying information. Sound, video, animations, or graphics
are used when they are the optimal media for communicating. This can result in a text-based
document, with graphics, links to video and sound intermingled with the words
on the page. For example, a paper
on the behavior of guerrillas in their natural environment could consist of
text to present theories about the behavior. However, the behavior and the
environment could be presented in video with sound. This would not only make it easier to
explain the behavior, it would also allow other researchers to interpret the
behavior differently.
A multimedia electronic document
could be structured very similar to a conventional scientific document, with an
abstract, and all the other sections commonly used for journal articles. However, the document would be in the
electronic format, but this does not mean that it cannot also be printed in a hardcopy
format, and published in a conventional journal. Of course, when a multimedia document is
printed, there is no sound or video, and it would be similar to a conventional
hardcopy.
Multimedia Documents Can Be Designed So They Can Be
Printed And Understood In A Hardcopy Format
When necessary, multimedia
documents, can be created so they are understandable if they are printed in a
hardcopy format. For example, if
there is a video in a multimedia document, additional text and photographs that
are printable can be provided to illustrate what is in the video. Ideally, when articles of this type are
published in a hardcopy format, the reader should be given the opportunity to
view any video or sound files. This
is actually very easy to do, even if your article is being published by a
conventional scientific journal.
The technique I am suggesting is simply to place any relevant video (or
any other multimedia components) on a website, where the reader can see the
video, and/or download it. It would
only be necessary to put the web address into the document, with a few words
explaining the supplemental material on the website. This would of course require the
cooperation of the publisher.
Summing Up The Utility Of The Multimedia Format For
Scientific Documents
In general, the multimedia format
is most useful when describing complex structures, and behaviors. Videos and sound are especially useful
for presenting animal behavior.
Animations are useful for demonstrating complex cellular and chemical
sequences that cannot be photographed, and maybe theoretical in nature. With mathematics, interactive formulas
and graphs would be the ideal in many situations. This involves formulas or graphs that
allow the user to change the numbers, and the computer will automatically
recalculate the results, after either clicking with the mouse, or pressing a
button on the keyboard.
Incidentally, I have created
electronic documents (the multimedia format) that had all the components
mentioned above, except for animation and video. I did this with relatively inexpensive
equipment. Based on my experience,
the multimedia technology is not excessively costly, and it is not extremely
difficult to learn. I would
estimate that an individual could master multimedia technology at a high enough
level to create documents as described above, with a study equal to one to
three semesters, assuming they had good computer skills.
WRITING FOR ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
General Structure
And Style Of Electronic Documents
The same commonly
used styles and structures that are used for conventional hardcopy documents
and books can be used for the electronic format. However, ideally the electronic format
should contain shorter paragraphs, and many more headings, then the
conventional format. Ideally,
sentence structures should be shorter also, but this is not always feasible
when describing complex material.
The divisions of a document, such as chapters, sections and subsections,
should be shorter in the electronic format. The font size should be considerably
larger than the size customarily used in conventional hardcopy documents.
This book is a good
example of an electronic document.
However, I have created a unique style that is very useful for complex
subjects, such as biology, and medicine.
This style is explained below.
THE WRITING STYLE USED
FOR THIS BOOK
A Very Useful Style For Complex Subjects, Such As
Biological Science
I did not use
a traditional writing style for this book.
I devised the style I used, with the multimedia electronic format in
mind. The style I created, involves
a number of features that make it useful for highly complex subjects, such as
the biological sciences.
First, the style I used for the book involves the electronic multimedia
format, which includes the HTML file format. This format is used on most
websites. With this format,
hyperlinks can be inserted directly into the text. The hyperlinks are essentially switches
that can be used to activate: sound files, videos, websites, and just about anything
else, that can function on a computer.
The format is also excellent for all types of graphics, especially
digital photographs.
The format I used for this book also allows for storage and transmission
of the material in a number of ways.
It can be placed on hard drives, flash drives, CDs, and DVDs, and it can
be displayed on the Internet, more or less as a conventional website. This format can also be sent through
e-mail, if the document does not exceed the size requirements set by the e-mail
provider.
The style I used contains shorter paragraphs than I would use in
conventional writing. I also used
more headings then conventional hardcopy writing styles. Most of the sections and subsections are
much shorter than in conventional hardcopy books. Some of the subsections are only one
paragraph in length. The table of
contents consists of a series of hyperlinks to the chapters, sections and
subsections. This style is useful
for electronic documents, because it helps the user find the specific sections
of the book that they want to read, in the table of contents, by clicking on
the hyperlinks that contain the information they are seeking.
The Text Was
Created For
The writing style in this book was created for both conventional reading
and narration. The narration is an
audio version of the text that is recorded in sound files. These sound files are activated by
clicking on hyperlinks, which are presented throughout the book. That is the entire book is presented in
two formats conventional text and a sound recording of the text. The only sections of the book that are
not presented in the sound format are the website links. This dual format provides the option of
reading and/or listening to the material contained in this book.
The narration appears to be a highly skilled professional announcer
reading the text, but it was actually produced electronically with high quality
text-to-speech software.
A major problem in writing any type of book focused on an entire subject
is space and time limitations. It
is usually impossible to cover a subject totally, and I certainly could not
write about everything in the biological sciences, in this book. To do so, would require a huge team of
experts, many millions of pages, and a storage facility as large as the
Search phrase
with Google The biological sciences http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+biological+sciences&btnG=Google+Search
Search phrase
Google scholar: Biological sciences http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=biological+sciences&btnG=Search
I call the above indirect hyperlinks, because to obtain the information
you first must click on the link in this book, and then click once again on the
webpage to obtain the information you want. The disadvantage to indirect hyperlinks
is you are presented with a very large number of websites on search pages,
which can be confusing. Many of the
websites displayed on the search pages may not contain the exact information
you want.
The following
examples are direct hyperlinks.
When you click on these links, you will be taken directly to a website
that has information about the biological sciences. These websites usually also contain
additional hyperlinks to other web pages and websites. However, the number of links they
contain is much smaller than the above examples. Usually they contain only about five to
50 links. This can still represent
a huge amount of information, but it does not come close to the millions of
websites obtainable with the indirect hyperlinks. However, the information that you will
be able to obtain from the direct hyperlinks will not require an examination of
a large number of links that may not provide the information you are looking
for. Generally, the hyperlinks that
go directly to websites provide more precise information, and for this reason I
have more direct links in this book than the indirect variety. See the following examples
http://www.mitochondrial.net/ Words on website: Mitochondria Research
http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/index_biologicalsciences.html Words on website: WEB FOCUSES Biological sciences archive
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/chloropl.htm Words on website: Chloroplast
www.Chloroplasts.com
Words on website: For ads
on Cells and Chlorophyll
10 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 8 The Internet And Special Search Engines,
And Directories For Biology And Health Science
SEARCH ENGINES AND
RELATED CONCEPTS
One of the most important tasks, for
writing documents or creating experiments, is to look up information, and
studied the relevant literature.
With the Internet, and the special techniques discussed in this chapter,
this task is much easier than it once was.
Perhaps, more importantly the modern techniques will usually produce
better results, then older methods of research.
Most educated people are skilled
in using the Internet, and searching for information, with search engines and
directories. However, in this
chapter, I will start by covering the basics, and I will proceed to more
advanced techniques. Many of the
advanced techniques are not well known, and probably will be new to most
readers. This will include
information on special search engines and directories that are designed for the
biological sciences, medicine, and health.
What Is an Internet Search Engine
An internet search engine
is software on a website that is designed to search the Internet for
information. Search engines look
for web pages on the Internet that have information that matches the word or
phrase the user entered into its dialog box. This matching process is not perfect,
and usually an Internet search results in a large number of hyperlinks to many
web pages. Some of these web pages
might have the information you are looking for. However, this is generally a hit or miss
process, usually requiring some trial and error.
There are many brands of search
engines, and they differ significantly in both quality, and functionality. This can be seen by clicking on the
following hyperlink, which will open a folder, with computer icon shortcuts to
many search engines. The folder
contains roughly 130 icon links to search engines. To use any of these search engines,
double left click on the icon, and the search engine should open. Some of these icons might not function,
because some of these websites may have been discontinued.
The most popular and useful
search engine is Google. Google
works well for finding all types of information. However, with Google, and many other
types of general search engines, the information that is obtained, is mixed in
with a large amount of unwanted web pages.
This includes advertising, and websites with oversimplified, or
inaccurate information. However,
usually with a little effort it is possible to find the information you are
looking for. If you are looking for
highly technical scientific information or journal articles, it will usually
take more effort in sorting out unwanted web pages. There are academic search engines that
are designed to eliminate this problem.
This will be discussed later on in this chapter.
A List Of Popular Search Engines
11 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
An Alternative To Search Engines, Internet Directories
Search engines on not the only
way to find information on the Internet.
There is another method of searching for information, which involves a
directory. An Internet directory is
a website that contains a series of hyperlinks that relate to general topics,
such as medicine, science, art, history, etc. You start by clicking on the general
topic that relates to your search.
For example, if you are searching for information on biochemistry, you
would start by clicking on science, and then you would probably be taken to a
webpage with many scientific subjects, including biology. You would find the word biology and
click on it, and you might be taken to a webpage that had a number of subjects
that relate to biology. This would
probably include biochemistry. Then
you would click on the word biochemistry, and you will probably be directed to
a page with a number of websites that deal with biochemistry.
The above sequences simplified for
explanatory purposes, and each directory will be somewhat different, but the
general principle is the same for most directories.
Based on my experience, search
engines are usually, but not always, more efficient and effective then
directories. However, under certain
conditions you may find directories more useful, especially when you are
dealing with a directory that specializes in the type of information you are
looking for.
A List Of General Directories, For Finding Information On The Internet
Search phrase with Google: Internet directories
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Internet+directories
This website consists of
one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://directory.google.com/
Words
on website: Google directory
http://dir.yahoo.com/
Words
on website: Yahoo directory
http://www.resourcelinks.net/ Words on website: Resourcelinks Business Directory
http://www.seocompany.ca/directory/web-directories.html Words on website: Web Directories
http://www.alephsearch.co.uk/ Words on website: Alepb Search
http://www.directoryofdirectories.in/ Words on website: The Directory of Directories
Search phrase with Google: “Directory of
directories” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Directory+of+directories%22 This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
12 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of
the following:
There are specialized search
engines that are designed to make searches for high-quality academic material,
such as scientific information and journal articles easier. These search engines generally eliminate
advertising and simplified articles for laypeople. One of these search engines is Google
scholar. However, searches with Google scholar,
and similar search engines, often result in websites that want money to read
their articles. Generally, these
websites are from the formal scientific journals. However, they usually allow you to read
the abstracts without charge. In
addition, some websites provide free access to their journal articles. If you put the words free access in your
search, you might obtain at least some websites that provide their articles
without charge.
Academic Search Engines And related Information
Search phrase with Google: “Academic search
engines” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Academic+search+engines%22
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://scholar.google.com/schhp
Words on website: Google Scholar
http://www.searchenginecolossus.com/Academic.html
Words on website: Search Engine
Colossus
http://www.academicinfo.net/refengines.html
Words on website: Academic info Internet Search Engines
http://www.search-engine-index.co.uk/academic_search/
Words on website: DIRECTORY OF ACADEMIC SEARCH ENGINES Academic Search Engines:
http://www.journalismnet.com/search/academic.htm Words on website: Academic Search engines
http://www.unf.edu/library/guides/search.html
Words on website: ACADEMIC
SEARCH ENGINES --
http://www.accd.edu/sac/library/faculty/deosdade/searchen.htm
Words on website: ACADEMIC
SEARCH ENGINES
http://www.lib.ku.edu/technology/searchengines/scholar.shtml Words on website: Academic and
Scholarly Search Engines
http://www.suite101.com/reference/academic_search_engines Words on website: Articles
related to "Academic Search Engines"
http://www.public.asu.edu/~kheenan/academicsearches.htm Words on website: Academic Search Engines
http://www.weblens.org/scholar.html Words on website: Scholarly
& Academic Research: Finding Journal Articles
http://business.fortunecity.com/nicholas/546/academicsearch.htm
Words
on website: Academic search
engines
13 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Specialized Search Engines, And Directories
There are search engines and
directories that focus on a specific subject, or field of study, such as
chemistry, physics, biology, biochemistry, biophysics, etc. Many of these search engines focus on
high quality information for professionals and students. However, the actual quality and results
that you obtain from using a specific search engine can very greatly. To obtain the best results, you should
be certain that you are using the correct search engine for your goals. The idea is to find the correct search
engine for your objectives. This
may require some trial and error, but it will not consume much time or
effort.
You can search for specialized
search engines, and directories, using conventional search engines, such as
Google, Yahoo search, etc. This is
generally a trial and error process, and it involves trying different search
phrases that relate to your subject.
Good phrases to start with include: search engines for subject-X,
directories for subject-X, search engines and directories for subject-X. Subject-X is the subject that you are
dealing with. For example, if you
were looking for search engines and directories for the biological sciences,
subject-X would be the biological sciences. In this case, your search phrase would
be search engines and directories for the biological sciences. I tried this search phrase with Google,
and I obtained the following search page, which contained over 999,000 possibilities. http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=search+engines+and+directories+for+the+biological+sciences
Some other possibilities for the
biological sciences include the following websites:
·
http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/biology/
·
http://www.biology-online.org/reference/Biology/Reference-Informatics/Directories-Search_Engines/
·
http://www.lib.lsu.edu/sci/bio/biology.html
More examples of search engines
for the biological sciences can be found under the next subheading.
Some examples of search engines
specialized for the biological sciences can be found by left clicking on the
following hyperlink, and/or by examining the Web addresses listed below.
Search phrase with Google: Search engines for biology
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Search+engines+for+biology&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.searchengineguide.com/pages/Science/Biology/
Words on website: Biology Search
Engines
http://www.academicinfo.net/biologysearch.html
Words on website: Biology Search Engines & Biology Servers
http://www.biology-online.org/reference/Biology/Reference-Informatics/Directories-Search_Engines/
Words on website: Biology
Directories and Search Engines Websites
Search phrase with Google: “Search engines” for
biochemistry
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%E2%80%9D+for+biochemistry
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
Search phrase with Google: “Search engines” for biochemistry http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%E2%80%9D+for+biochemistry
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.libraries.psu.edu/lifesciences/bmb.htm Words on website: Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology
http://www.sc.edu/library/science/scisearch.html Words on website: Chemistry/Biochemistry
http://www.library.jcu.edu.au/subjectgds/Fac3/NetResources/biochemb.shtml
Words on website: Biochemistry & Molecular Biology
http://library.csus.edu/guides/rogenmoserd/heas/anatomy.htm Words on website: BIOLOGY:
ANATOMY- PHYSIOLOGY-BIOCHEMISTRY
http://www.academicinfo.net/biochem.html Words on website:
http://www.library.yorku.ca/ccm/rg/lf/biochem.jsp Words on website: Biochemistry Research Guide
Search phrase with Google: “Search engines” for
biophysics http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%E2%80%9D+for+biophysics
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.library.jcu.edu.au/subjectgds/Fac3/NetResources/biochemb.shtml Words on website: Biochemistry and
Molecular Biology Databases
http://www.linkedwords.com/se.php?kw=biochemistry+phd
Words
on website: Search engines: biochemistry
http://library.csus.edu/guides/rogenmoserd/heas/anatomy.htm
Words
on website: BIOLOGY: ANATOMY- PHYSIOLOGY-BIOCHEMISTRY
http://www.biochemistry.org/links.htm Words on website: Biochemical
Society
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ Words on website:
http://www.libraries.psu.edu/lifesciences/bmb.htm Words on website: Biochemistry
and Molecular Biology
http://www.linkedwords.com/se.php?kw=biochemistry+terms
Words on website: [ Search Engines ] Inquire popular
search engines about: biochemistry terms *
http://www.lmb.ubc.ca/analytical.html Words on website: Biophysics
http://medbio.utoronto.ca/resources/links.html
Words on website:
http://h3.netster.com/search/Biophysics Words on website: Netster
Search
http://biochem.umn.edu/links.htm
Words on website: Thomas Lab Useful Links
Search phrase with Google: “Search engines” for
medicine
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%E2%80%9D+for+medicine
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://searchenginewatch.com/showPage.html?page=2156231
Words on website: Medical Search Engines
http://www.healthline.com/
Words on website: HealthLine
http://www.medilexicon.com/ Words on website: MediLexicon contains searches, information, news and resources for the
medical, pharmaceutical and healthcare professional.
http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020228&ct=1
Words on website: Using Search Engines to Find Online Medical
Information
http://websearch.about.com/od/enginesanddirectories/tp/medical.htm
Words on website: Top 5 Medical Search Engines
Search phrase with Google: “Search engines” to find
physicians http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%E2%80%9D+to+find+physicians&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.searchengineguide.com/pages/Health/ Words on website: Health Search Engines
http://noedb.org/library/features/100-search-engines-and-tools-for-medical-self-diagnosis Words on website: e-Second Opinions: 100 Search Engines and Tools for
Medical Self-Diagnosis
http://aip.completeplanet.com/aip-engines/browse?thisPage=/browse/browse.jsp&successPage=/browse/browse.jsp&errorFlag=&errorMsg=&event=displayNodeEvent&nodeHarvestName=&treeQueryTarget=tree&treeQueryExpr=&treeQueryType=and&account=loc&username=dev2_040308¤tPage=0&directSection=4&nodePath=/Top/myDQM/Structure+Reports/Regional
Words on website: Discover over 70,000+ searchable databases and
specialty search engines.
http://www.searchenginecolossus.com/Medical.html
Words on website: Medical
http://ejdweb.sd70.bc.ca/Computer_Policies/academic.htm
Words on website: Guides to Academic Search Engines
Search phrase with Google “Search engines”
for the biological sciences
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%22+for+the+biological+sciences
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.searchengineguide.com/pages/Science/Biology/
Words on website: Biology Search Engines
Biology search engines, portals, and directories.
http://www.biology-online.org/reference/Biology/Reference-Informatics/Directories-Search_Engines/
Words on website: Biology Directory
Biology Reference and Informatics > Websites for Biology
Directories and Search Engines
http://www.google.com/Top/Science/Biology/
Words on website: Google Directory Biology
http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/biology/searchengines.html
Words on website: Search Engines for
the Biological Sciences
http://www.library.cmu.edu/Research/EngineeringAndSciences/Bio/biosearch.html
Words on website: Words on website: Biological
Sciences-Related Search Engines
http://www.twingroves.district96.k12.il.us/ScienceInternet/Biological.html
Words on website: Science and the Internet Biological
Science
http://biosci.sierracollege.edu/resources/links/index.html
Words on website: Biological Sciences Web Internet Information Sources
http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp
Words on website: SCIRUS for scientific information only
http://www.calumet.purdue.edu/biology/important_links/link_page.html
Words on website: Important Links to the Life Sciences
Search phrase with Google: “Search engines”
for the medicine http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CSearch+engines%E2%80%9D+for+the+medicine&btnG=Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://searchenginewatch.com/showPage.html?page=2156231
Words on website: Medical
Search Engines
http://allsearchengines.com/healthmed.html
Words on website: Health & Medicine SEs
Words on website: Using Search Engines to
Find Online Medical Information
http://www.mednets.com/ Words on website: MEDETECTIVE
Search engine
http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Search_Engines/ Words on website: Dmoz open directory project
http://www.beaucoup.com/1heaeng.html
Words on website: Beaucoup Super Search
http://www.searchengineguide.com/pages/Health/
Health Search Engines Search Our Directory of
Search Engines
http://www.google.com/Top/Health/Search_Engines/
Words on website: Google Directory
Health > Search Engines
http://med.fsu.edu/Library/MedSearchEngines.asp
Words
on website: Words on website: MEDICAL SEARCH ENGINES & DIRECTORIES
http://www.altmedicine.com/Search/search2.htm Words on website: Alternative Health News
Online Top Medical Search
Engines
http://www.beaucoup.com/1cmeeng.html
Words on website: Beaucoup Super Search CONSUMER MEDICINE
http://www.leidenuniv.nl/ub/biv/specials.htm Words on website: A collection of special search
engines
http://gsm.utmck.edu/library/links/engines.htm Words on website:
http://msxml.webcrawler.com/webcrawler/ws/results/Web/Biology%20Search%20Engine/1/107/RightNav/Relevance/zoom=off/_iceUrlFlag=7?_IceUrl=true
Words
on website: Web Search Results for
"Biology Search Engine"
http://openwetware.org/wiki/Main_Page
Words on website: OpenWetWare
14 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
People often confuse a Web
browser with a search engine. As stated
above, a search engine is software on a website. A Web browser is software on your
computer that is used to access all types of websites, including websites
that have search engines. Only a
few brands of browsers are commonly used, and most of them do not differ
greatly in quality and functionality.
The most popular is Internet explorer. Netscape Navigator was also very
popular, but support and related technical maintenance for this browser has
been discontinued. Firefox is
another very good browser.
Websites For Information And Downloads Of Browsers
If you want any of the browsers
in this list you can obtain them for free, by clicking on the links next to
their names. This will take you to
a website where you can download the software for free.
Search phrase with Google: Web browsers downloads
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Web+browsers+downloads&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.opera.com/download/
Words on website: Opera
http://www.mozilla.com/en-US/firefox/ Words on website: Firefox has security, speed and new features that will change the way
you use the Web. Don’t settle for anything less.
http://browser.netscape.com/
Words
on website: The
Netscape Archive
http://flock.com/ Words on website:
Flock
http://www.mozilla.com/en-US/thunderbird/ Words on website: Thunderbird
http://www.apple.com/safari/download/
Download Safari
http://www.download.com/Browsers/3150-2356_4-0.html Web Browsers
http://www.microsoft.com/windows/products/winfamily/ie/default.mspx
Internet Explorer
15 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
A basic understanding of science, a specially physics
and chemistry, is very helpful, or perhaps necessary, to understand the
biological sciences. Almost all of
the textbooks I have seen on biology or physiology start with introductory
discussions focused on chemistry.
Living organisms, including the human body are also a type of machine,
from the perspective of physics. In
general, living things are essentially machines that follow the laws of
chemistry and physics.
The
material provided in these introductory chapters are quite basic, and many Web
addresses are provided to obtain intermediate and advanced material on the
aspects of physics and chemistry that apply to living things.
Chapter 9 Atoms, Molecules, Chemistry, Physics,
Cells: The Building Blocks of Life
Introduction: The
building blocks
What are living things made of?
Everything is essentially composed of building blocks, of some
type. This applies to humans,
plants, animals, chemicals, molecules, and atoms. I will start by using atoms as examples,
because they relate to chemistry, which is helpful in understanding the
biological sciences.
The Building Blocks Of Atoms
From the simplest perspective, the building blocks of atoms are protons,
neutrons, and electrons. The
protons and neutrons comprise the center of the atom, the nucleus. Around the nucleus the electrons orbit,
generally in pairs called orbitals.
There are 92* naturally occurring varieties of atoms, based on the number
of protons and electrons. These
atoms comprise the 92* naturally occurring elements.
*A Note On
Naturally Occurring Elements
Some sources argue that there are only 88 naturally occurring elements,
because four of the elements are radioactive, and decay too quickly to be found
in a natural form. However, this is
not important for our discussion but if you want more information see::
http://mysite.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/92.htm
Words on website: 92 Naturally Occurring Elements?
A Note On Elements
Created By Scientists In Nuclear Reactions
A number of elements have been created by scientists with nuclear
reactions. Some of these elements
might naturally occur in nuclear reactions that take place in the sun, and
other stars. However, this is not
important for our discussion, but if you want, more information sees the
following websites:
http://reference.howstuffworks.com/chemistry-radioactive-elements-encyclopedia-channel.htm Words on website: Featured Radioactive Elements in Chemistry Entry
http://www.angelfire.com/mac2/imac0000/ChemXElements.html
Words
on website: Elements 113 & 115
http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0847507.html
Words on website: Encyclopedia synthetic elements
16 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
16 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The concept of elements was delineated above in terms of protons and the
atom. Elements can also be defined
as fundamental substances that cannot be decomposed (broken up) into other
compounds by chemical means. They
can decompose in nuclear reactions.
Elements and the number of protons they contain are listed in a graphical
form called the periodic table.
The periodic table can be viewed by clicking on the web links, at the
end of this paragraph. These
websites have each element hyperlinked to web pages, for additional
information.
http://www.chemicool.com/ Words on website: Periodic Table
Forum - Chemistry Dictionary - Chemistry Tools - Resources
http://www.webelements.com/
Words
on website: Elements, and Artificial
Elements
http://www.chemicalelements.com/
Words
on website: Click on an element symbol for
more information
Above, I delineated the different types of atoms and elements, based on
the number of protons. This is the
way elements are defined for chemistry.
The reason for this is that the chemical behavior (or chemical
properties) depends on the number of protons an atom contains. However, we can also delineate different
varieties of atoms based on the number of neutrons they contain. When this is done, we find that there
are a number of variations of the elements. The variations are called isotopes. For example, isotopes of hydrogen
include hydrogen with one proton and no neutrons, deuterium with one proton and
one neutron, and tritium with one proton and two neutrons. Examples of isotopes of carbon are
carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14.
Examples of isotopes of oxygen are: oxygen-16, oxygen-17, and
oxygen-18.
As the number of neutrons increase in an isotope, the weight and masse of
the atom and corresponding element increases. For example, hydrogen, with no neutrons,
is lower in weight and mass than deuterium, which has one neutron. If water (which is composed of hydrogen
and oxygen) is created with deuterium, it is called heavy water, because it has
greater weight and mass than regular water.
Isotopes of a given element, such as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14,
all have the same chemical properties.
However, the heavier isotopes of an element tend to react slower than
their lighter isotopes. This is
especially the case when you compare, hydrogen with no neutrons, and deuterium
with one neutron. This is because
the weight and mass of deuterium is two times that of conventional hydrogen
with no neutrons, which slows up chemical reactions vary significantly. When isotopes vary slightly in mass, and
weight, such as with oxygen-16 and oxygen-18 the change in reaction rate will
be small.
Are Isotopes
Relevant for Biological Science?
Some of the isotopes are radioactive. In the biological sciences radioactive
isotopes are often used to image structures, evaluate chemical sequences, and
movements of chemicals through an organism. There are even medical uses for
radioactive isotopes. This includes
imaging, and to destroy cancer cells.
Certain radioactive isotopes that are found naturally in nature can be
used to determine the date of previously living matter. A good example is carbon-14 dating. Carbon 14 dating is possible because
regular carbon-12 is not radioactive, but carbon-14 is radioactive. Both carbon 12 and carbon-14 are present
in the atmosphere, and the food we eat.
As a result, of this, living things have a fixed ratio of carbon 12 and
14. However, when a plant or animal
dies, carbon 14 will gradually decrease.
The reason for this is it is radioactive, and it is not renewed in dead
animals from food, and in dead plants from carbon dioxide and
photosynthesis. Thus, the ratio of
carbon 12 to carbon-14, will change, as time goes on, in a way that relates to
the half-life of carbon-14. This
can be used to determine the approximate time that dead plants and animals
lived. The less carbon-14, the
older the plant or animal remains are.
This technique does not work when remains are very old, such as with
dinosaur fossils. Carbon-14 dating
can be used for remains that are up to approximately 40,000 years.
For additional information see the following websites:
http://www.radiochemistry.org/nuclearmedicine/radioisotopes/01_isotopes.shtml Words on website: Medical Isotopes
http://www.schoolforchampions.com/chemistry/isotopes.htm Words on website: Isotopes Determined by Neutrons in Nucleus
http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/periodic-table/isot.html Words on website: Links to
naturally occurring isotopes data data
17 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Atoms, Molecules,
and Chemicals
Most of the 92 varieties of atoms can join together, in chemical
reactions, to form molecules. The
chemicals that everything is composed of consist of molecules. A pure chemical substance will only
contain one type of molecule. An
impure chemical or a mixture will contain more than one type of molecule.
THE CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF LIVING MATTER
What Are The Most
Abundant Chemicals In Living Matter? C, H, O, N, Ca, Ph
The primary chemical
elements that comprise living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
phosphorus, calcium, as well as tiny quantities of many other elements. This includes iodine, zinc, copper
cobalt, magnesium, iron, and many others.
Carbon, in a certain sense, can be thought of as the primary element in
living things. Carbon has unique
chemical properties that make the highly complex molecules needed for life
possible. Specifically, carbon has
four bonds, which are places where other atoms can be attached. Carbon can also form bonds that connect
other carbon atoms together. As a
result, there are very complex molecules that involve long chains of carbon atoms. Without these properties of carbon life
would be impossible as we know it.
That is life on Earth is based on carbon.
Life Forms Based
On Elements Other Than Carbon, This Is Quite Doubtful ????????
I have heard speculation from various sources that there may be life,
somewhere in the universe, based on silicon. Silicon does have some of the bonding
properties of carbon, but not to the same extent. Silicon can form some long chain
chemicals, in a way that is more or less similar to carbon, but not to the same
degree. However, at this point in
time there is no evidence to indicate that any form of life is based on
silicon, except perhaps in some science fiction videos and novels.
For more information about this subject see the following websites:
Search phrase with Google: "life based on
silicon"
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22life+based+on+silicon%22 This website consists of one or more search
pages, with many links to other websites.
If you do not find what you want on this website, you can change the
search phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above
web address. After changing the
search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see a different set of
websites.
http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/cosmic_evolution/docs/text/text_future_5.html Words on website: ALTERNATIVE BIOCHEMISTS
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/07/science/space/07alien.html The New York Times Space & Cosmos Scientists Urge a Search for Life Not
as We Know It
A Brief Note On
Organic Chemistry
The chemistry of carbon, and its ability to form highly complex
chemicals, is called organic chemistry.
Organic chemistry does not just involve the chemistry of living things. Organic chemistry includes the chemistry
of plastics and many drugs. With
the properties of carbon, many synthetic materials have been created.
Since silicon has some of the bonding properties of carbon, it might also
be used in organic chemistry. Silicon
can sometimes be used in place of carbon atoms in a molecule. Just as carbon is used to create
synthetic materials, so can silicon.
There are synthetic plastics created with silicon, which are often more
heat resistant than carbon-based plastics.
However, this does not imply that there is silicon based life, or that
Silicon can take the place of carbon in living things. For more information on organic
chemistry consult the following list of websites.
Websites On Organic Chemistry
http://library.thinkquest.org/3659/orgchem/
Words on website: Organic
Chemistry
http://www.askthenerd.com/ocol/
Words on website: Organic Chemistry Online
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=60
Words
on website: Organic Chemistry
http://www.ides.com/generics/Silicone.htm Words on website: The plastics
Web
http://www.springerlink.com/content/w48qt887652g6137/ Words on website: Mechanical
properties of plastics reinforced with silicon
18
Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Biochemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of living
things. There are a very large
number of organic compounds found in living entities. This includes proteins, amino acids (the
building blocks of proteins) DNA, RNA, ATP, ADP, hormones, hemoglobin,
chlorophyll, and many others.
However, biochemists are also interested in the chemical sequences that
take place within living things.
This includes the chemical sequences involved in: photosynthesis, energy
production, digestion, etc.
Some of the material mentioned above will be covered in more detail in
other chapters of this book.
However, biochemistry is a very extensive field, and if you want
detailed information on this subject, consult the following websites:
Search phrase with Google: biochemistry http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=biochemistry&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/glossary_3.html
Words on website: UCMP Glossary: Biochemistry
http://www.med.nyu.edu/biochem/HomePage.html
Words on website: Department of biochemistry at
http://chemistry.about.com/od/lecturenoteslab1/Biochemistry_Lecture_Notes_Labs.htm
Words on website: > Branches of Chemistry> Biochemistry>
http://biochemistry.stanford.edu/
Words on website: STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE Understanding
Fundamental Biological Questions
http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch331/bcintro/default.html
Words on website: Biochemistry Online
http://www.biochemistry.utoronto.ca/
Words on website: Department of biochemistry University of Toronto
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/collection/biochem
Words on website: AAAS Biochemistry
http://linkedwords.com/local.php?for=biochemistry%20phd
Words on website:[ LOCAL ] Narrow your search for biochemistry phd by going
local
http://linkedwords.com/se.php?kw=biochemistry%20phd
Words on website: [ Search Engines ] Inquire popular search engines about:
biochemistry phd
19 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
From The Smallest
To The Largest, Concluding Concepts
Essentially, electrons, neutrons and protons are the building blocks of
atoms. Atoms are the building
blocks of molecules, and molecules are the building blocks of tiny sub-cellular
structures that comprise cells.
Cells are the building blocks of organs, such as the brain, heart,
kidneys, liver, etc. The organs are
essentially the building blocks of higher organisms.
Calling cells or organs building blocks is of course an
oversimplification. Cells and
organs are actually very complex machines from the perspective of chemistry and
physics.
Chapter 10 A Brief Look At Life From The
Perspective Of Physics, And Related Concepts
I provide it a brief look at chemistry in the previous chapter, because
it provides valuable insights into the biological sciences. A brief examination of physics can also
provide insight that will be helpful in understanding living things.
The Laws Of
Physics That Apply To Machines And Other Inanimate Objects, Also Apply To
Living Things
Living things behave according to the laws of physics and chemistry. This includes both the internal and
external processes of living things.
An interesting example can be seen with the human body. It produces electric currents that can
be measured with a highly sensitive electric meter. The electrical pulses can also be
amplified and displayed on an oscilloscope or computer screen.
In fact, many medical devices use the laws of physics to evaluate the
health of the various body organs.
Two examples are the cardiogram and the electroencephalogram. A cardiogram consists of a recording of
electrical pulses from the human body, that relate to the functioning of the
heart. An electroencephalogram is a
recording of electrical pulses from the brain.
The muscles in the
human body are essentially electrochemical devices. The nerves that control the muscles are
also electrochemical devices. If
you attach very sensitive electric devices to muscles, you will pick up an
electric current. The nerves
activate the muscles with electric currents.
Interestingly, there are electronic devices that are designed to put an
electric current into the muscles, to activate them. These machines create electric pulses
that are more or less similar to the electric pulses produced and transmitted
by nerves. These devices have some
therapeutic purposes. They can be
used to exercise muscles, especially when the patient has difficulties with the
nerves that control the muscles.
For curiosity, I tried one of these devices at my doctor's office, with
the assistance of a medical technician.
The device actually causes control muscle movements. My arm and shoulder moved about 8 inches
upward, automatically, when the machine was turned on. The sensation was quite strange, because
I was not trying to make any movements, but the machine had taken control of my
arm and shoulder muscles, and it repeatedly moved my arm and shoulder up and
down.
There are electric devices similar to the above that are used for pain
control. They put electric currents
into sections of the body to interfere with the electric pulses that relate to
pain.
Thus, the human body can be thought of as an electrochemical machine,
which obeys the laws of physics and chemistry, in the same way as inanimate
objects do.
If you want more information on the machines described above, and related
concepts, consult the following websites.
http://soe.stanford.edu/research/pdf_melosh.pdf Words on website:Nick
Melosh’s research is about controlling cells, proteins, and ultimately physiological
functions, with precise man-made electronics.
http://www.google.com/products?hl=en&q=ELECTRONIC+MUSCLE+STIMULATION+and+TENS+UNITS&um=1&ie=UTF-8
Words
on website: Showing all items
Words on website: Featured Products
http://ezinearticles.com/?Electronic-Muscle-Stimulation-As-An-Effective-Workout&id=565996
Words on website: Electronic Muscle Stimulation As An
Effective Workout
http://www.bodyshapers.com/ Our
Words on website: Differences between the TENS &
EMS Stimulators
http://www.vitalitywebb.com/backstore/Muscleindex.htm?Google&gclid=CPHy-oi1lZQCFQrPGgodAjXJtw
20 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
PHYSICS, ENERGY, WORK AND LIVING THINGS
The body can
produce energy by oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide and water. The amount of energy obtained, for a
given quantity of glucose, is the same as if it was oxidized to carbon dioxide
and water in the laboratory. The
same applies to any other material that the body uses for energy, such as fats
and proteins. What is
not consumed as energy is stored in the body, used for growth, or
excreted. That is everything
adds up in the same way as it does outside of the body in the laboratory.
When people lift objects to height X, the energy consumed is equal to the
height, multiplied by the weight of the object, multiplied by their
efficiency. This same formula can
be used for elevators, cranes, as well as human beings.
The Above
Suggests the Question: What is the Ultimate Source of Energy for Living Things.
Green plants and the sun are the ultimate source of energy for most
living things on our planet, with only a few exceptions that will be described
later. Green plants capture the
energy from the sun. This is done
in a series of complex chemical sequences.
Green plants can take in carbon dioxide from the air, and chemically
react it with water, which involves an endothermic reaction that captures
energy from the sun. This results
in stored energy in a simple sugar called glucose. This reaction takes place with
chlorophyll, which gives plants their green Color. The process is called photosynthesis. Actually, green plants form many other
chemicals, including various types of carbohydrates, proteins, and oils, but
the energy for this process ultimately comes from the sun.
The above is greatly simplified, and for detailed information consult the
following websites.
Websites On
Photosynthesis, And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: Photosynthesis http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Photosynthesis&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.estrellamountain.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPS.html
Words
on website: PHOTOSYNTHESIS Table of Contents
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio104/photosyn.htm
Words
on website: Photosynthesis is the process of
converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of
sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants
need only light energy, CO2, and H2O to make sugar. The
process of photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts, specifically using chlorophyll, the green pigment
involved in photosynthesis.
http://www.life.uiuc.edu/govindjee/paper/gov.html Words on website: THE PHOTOSYNTHETIC PROCESS
http://photoscience.la.asu.edu/PHOTOSYN/EDUCATION/PHOTOINTRO.HTML Words on website: An
Introduction to Photosynthesis and Its Applications
http://www.cst.cmich.edu/users/baile1re/bio101fall/enzphoto/photoanima.htm
Words
on website: Photosynthesis animation
http://hcs.osu.edu/hcs300/photosyn.htm Words on website: In talking about respiration we followed energy from carbohydrates through different molecules until it was mostly in NADH and then it was converted to ATP through an electron transport chain.
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/courses/Bio111/Photosynth/PS.html Words
on website: Photosynthesis in Action
21 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Animals Generally
Get Their Energy By Eating Plants Or Other Animals
Animals eat the green plants, and/or other living things to obtain
energy. For example, antelope eat
vegetation, and lions eat antelope.
Fungus plants, such as mushrooms, mold, and most bacteria obtain their
energy by consuming dead plants or animals. Some bacteria and parasites live off
living entities.
Thus, all of the examples mentioned above, and all living things in
general, ultimately survive as the result of solar energy, except for a few
unusual examples, described later in this chapter. This energy is used for work, such as
hunting for food, and for heat production.
The energy is also used to build chemical structures that involve
endothermic reactions. To build
most complex molecules, including sugars, proteins, and fat, energy is
consumed, in endothermic reactions.
This energy either comes directly from the sun, (for green plants), or
indirectly for animals, fungus and bacteria, with only very few exceptions.
Are There Any
Living Things On Earth That Do Not Ultimately Depend On The Sun For Energy
In the previous paragraphs, I explained the food chain based on the sun
and green plants. At one time, it
was believed that this was the only food chain on our planet. However, there are many scientists that
claim that there are other food chains, based on inorganic chemicals and
certain species of bacteria. (See
the websites below.) These bacteria
consume inorganic compounds, released from the earth's crust, such as hydrogen
sulfide released from volcanic vents.
These compounds can produce energy in exothermic reactions in the
bacteria, as well as in laboratory experiments. Bacteria of this type and the related
food chain may be found in areas of the Earth where there is inadequate light
for green plants, such as in very deep portions of the ocean, and perhaps some
caves. The above, may not seen very
interesting, but the bacteria are consumed by other living things in the ocean,
which are consumed by larger animals, according to some scientists. Some of these animals, as shown in a
National Geographic film, are quite large, and look very strange, as if they
came from a science fiction movie.
I strongly recommend spending a few minutes looking at this National
Geographic film, which is hyperlinked to this document, by way of the following
website.
http://www.kewego.com/video/iLyROoaftMJL.html
Words on website: National
Geographic's Bob Ballard explores an undersea "lost city" of
hydrothermal vents where strange forms of life thrive.’
There are
also some papers written on the above, displayed on the following websites.
http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/vent/review.pdf
Words on website: Hydrothermal Vent Communities
http://www.georgewright.org/01yp_cuhel1.pdf
Words on website: Underwater Domains in Yellowstone
Lake Hydrothermal Vent Geochemistry and Bacterial Chemosynthesis
Another Explanation:
Is There Really A Significant Non-Solar Food Chain On Our Planet?
The non-solar food chains discussed in the above paragraphs and websites,
suggest that animals are involved in the higher levels of these non-solar food
chains. The theory that is
presented is the larger animals consume smaller animals, which ultimately live
off animals that consume the bacteria, without any energy from the sun. The first website above, from National
Geographic, shows detailed video of large animals, in very deep levels of the
ocean where there is no sunlight.
They assumed that the ultimate source of energy for these animals could
be bacteria that can obtain energy from inorganic compounds. However, I am going to present
another possibility, which is that these larger animals, and perhaps many or all of the
smaller animals, are consuming food from the upper region of the ocean where
there is sun. This can involve,
animals at various depths, eating animals that are from a slightly higher ocean
depth, and/or eating the remains from dead plants or animals that sunk to lower
levels of the ocean. This can
involve a chain, starting from the surface of the ocean where there is much
sunlight, and ending at the bottom of the ocean where there is no sunlight. Thus, a food chain of
this nature would be based on sunlight, but the food is transferred into regions without any sunlight in a
series of steps.
I am not implying that
my alternative theory is the only correct possibility, but I am stating there
are at least two explanations that are both possible. I do not know which of the two theories
are correct. I can think of a few
ways that the theories can be experimentally evaluated, as presented bellow.
The first method of evaluating the above theories, involves growing large
quantities of the bacteria (found near hydrothermal vents) in the laboratory,
with radioactive tracers. Then, the
bacteria can be released in the lower portion of the ocean, near the
hydrothermal vents. If the
radioactive tracers show up in the animals, it would support the possibility of
a non-solar food chain. However,
such an experiment may not be absolute proof of the non-solar food chain. The reason for this is there are various
ways that radioactive traces can be transmitted from one species to
another. For example, when the
bacteria die, the radioactive tracers can be released into the seawater. The seawater with the radioactive tracers
might be ingested by the larger animals.
The other method of testing the theories would involve growing large
quantities of the bacteria and then trying to use the bacteria as food for
animals captured from regions near the hydrothermal vents. A simpler (but less precise) version of
the above experiment would involve using the readily available animals from the
surface of the earth and ocean, such as fish and insects with the goal of
determining whether or not animals can live off the bacteria from the
hydrothermal vents as a sole source of food.
All of the
above experiments would be quite difficult, and probably also quite expensive,
because the hydrothermal vents are in very deep levels of the ocean. This would require undersea robotic
equipment, similar to the devices seen in the National Geographic film,
discussed above. It also may be
very difficult, or unfeasible to obtain the bacteria or animals, and then grow
them in the laboratory, at sea level.
The undersea animals and the bacteria discussed in the National
Geographic film, live in an environment with very great levels of pressure, and
may not be able to survive at conventional atmospheric pressure.
Experiments similar to those suggested above can be carried out easier,
when they involve ecosystems that are at sea level. There is some evidence that there are
such non-solar ecosystems in certain regions of the earth that are more
accessible than the low levels of the ocean, such as in certain sections of
Yellowstone Park the following website for more information:
http://www.georgewright.org/01yp_cuhel1.pdf
Words on website: Underwater Domains in Yellowstone
Lake Hydrothermal Vent Geochemistry and Bacterial Chemosynthesis
We can sum up three very important ideas about living entities in one
sentence. All living things follow
the laws of physics and chemistry, and they are composed of cells. However, the older assumption that all
living things ultimately obtain their energy from the sun is probably not
correct. At the very least, there appears
to be one or more strains of bacteria that can obtain energy from inorganic
substances, in exothermic reactions.
22 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
PART FOUR: THE FOLLOWING CHAPTERS DEAL WITH
MICROBIOLOGY AND RELATED CONCEPTS
In the
following chapters, I discuss the various types of microscopes, and photo
microscopy, as well as what you can see with microscopes. This includes the structure of cells, their
organelles, and related concepts.
Chapter 11 Microbiology:
Microscopes
Introduction: The Microscope, And Related Developments In Biology
Microbiology came about as a
result of the development of the microscope. The first development was the light
microscope, which was followed by the invention of the electron microscope, and
electron-scanning microscope. The
light microscope revealed cells, and the cellular structure of life. It also revealed to some extent the
cell’s organelles, and bacteria, but with
minimal detail. Viruses cannot be
seen with the light microscope, but it is sometimes possible to see the
cellular damage they cause.
The fine details of organelles
and bacteria, and viruses were not revealed until the development of the
electron microscope. There surface
structure was revealed in a higher degree of detail, after the introduction of
the electron-scanning microscope.
How Is Magnification
Measured, And What Units Of Length Are Used For Microscopic Work
The power
of a microscope is measured in terms of the number of times it can increase the
diameter of an object. For example,
if you magnify a circle on your computer screen, with a diameter of 3 inches,
two times, it would appear 6 inches across. Of course, objects viewed through a
microscope are much smaller than this, and are magnified to a much higher
degree. Generally, they are only a
small fraction of an inch.
However, inches are not usually used as a
measuring unit for microscopic work.
The units used are micrometers, µm, or nanometers, abbreviated
nm. 1 µm equals 10-6
meters, and 1 nm equals 10-9 meters. One meter equals 100 cm, or 1000 mm, or
3.28 feet. One Micron (micrometers)
= 0.00003937007874015748 Inches.
See http://www.calculateme.com/Length/index.htm
for a calculator that converts lengths from one system to another, and from
smaller or larger units. This
device is quite handy, and I used it for the conversions presented above.
The simplest, microscope, or
magnifying device, consists of one powerful lens. A microscope of this type is limited in
its magnifying capabilities. When
two or more lenses are used, the magnifying power is greatly increased, which
is called the compound light microscope.
The basic structure of the
simplest compound light microscope consists of a tube several inches long, with
two lenses, one at each end, called the eyepiece and an objective. The tube is mounted on some type of
support, where the objective is just above the specimen. The microscope is focused by lowering or
raising the tube.
The History Of The Light Microscope
The first compound light
microscope (known to historians) was created in
A Note On The History Of The Microscope
The basic structure of a light
microscope is relatively simple, and it can be constructed with commonly
available materials and hand tools.
The microscope was probably invented by many individuals way before the
dates in history books. There are even
water drop microscopes that use drops of water for lenses, and do not require
any glass. This device is a simple
type of light microscope, and it can be constructed with very simple materials
and tools. Since this type of
microscope does not require glass, it may have been invented by many
individuals even before the discovery of glass. (See http://www.sas.org/tcs/weeklyIssues_2007/2007-01-05/project1/index.html Words on website: The Instant
Microscope: Just add water.
It is possible to create powerful
magnifying devices similar to the water drop microscope with other liquids,
such as oils, and liquefied sugar.
Thus, some individuals may have observed the cellular structure of
living matter, and microbes, well before the dates mentioned above.
When an individual invents
something, it does not necessarily become publicized. Perhaps, the important concept is not
who the first inventors are, but who the innovators who introduced the
microscope, and related observations about the cells into the world of science
are. These people are noted by the
historians.
Websites On The History Of The Microscope
Search phrase with Google: The History Of The
Microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+History+Of+The+Microscope&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://inventors.about.com/od/mstartinventions/a/microscope.htm Words on website: History of the Microscope
http://www.az-microscope.on.ca/history.htm Words on website: History of the Microscope
http://www.southwestschools.org/jsfaculty/Microscopes/history.html
Words on website: Founding
Fathers of Microscopy Other
Significant Contributions Evolution
Of The Microscope Back To
Main Microscope Page
http://www.brianjford.com/whistmic.htm Words on website: Introduction to Research with
Early Microscopes
http://www.microscope.org/micro/sm101.htm Words
on website: A Short History of the
Microscope
23 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The modern light microscope has a
number of objectives (which are lenses right above the specimen) that are
mounted on a rotating assembly.
This allows the user to rotate an objective into place, which provides
the choice of objectives, and related magnifications. Light microscopes often have more than
one eyepiece, such as one for each eye.
My microscope has three eyepieces, two for the eyes, and one for a
camera.
Most light microscopes, also
allow the user to change objectives and eyepieces, manually, by screwing them
on and off. This can greatly
increase the versatility of a microscope, even after it is purchased, because
objectives and eyepieces of different magnifications are sold as individual
items.
Objectives and eyepieces are
available in many different magnifications. The magnifying power of the eyepiece,
multiplied by the power of the objective, equals the magnification you will
obtain. For example, an eyepiece
that magnifies 10 times, and an objective, with magnifications of 40X, will
result in the magnification of 400X.
Eyepieces and objectives for the
modern microscope are usually constructed of two or more lenses. You can easily observe this with most
microscope eyepieces, because usually the lenses can be screwed apart, with
little effort. Most modern light
microscopes also have a built-in light source, and an adjustable diaphragm and
condenser to control the light.
For more information on the light
microscope, see the following websites.
Websites On The Light Microscope, And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: The Light Microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Light+Microscope&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/methods/microscopy/microscopy.html Words
on website: Light Microscopy
http://www.howstuffworks.com/light-microscope.htm Words on website: How Light Microscopes Work
http://www.southwestschools.org/jsfaculty/Microscopes/compoundscope.html Words on website: The Compound Light Microscope
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/News/2007/March/06030701.asp Words
on website: Nano-objects under the light
microscope
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/studies/invertebrates/microscope_studies.html Words on
website: Studies Employing the Light Microscope
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/introduction.html Words
on website: Introduction to Microscopy
http://www.med.umich.edu/histology/microscope.html Words on website: Steps for properly setting up a
microscope
http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?type=article&article_id=218393115 Words
on website: 3-D Microscope
24 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
There are many variations of the
light microscope. Some of the
better-known variations are phase contrast, dark field, and polarized light
microscopes. Some light microscopes
incorporate a number of variations in one device. My microscope, is a conventional light,
phase contrast, and with a special attachment, polarizing light
microscope. I can also obtain dark
field images, by manipulating the objectives, and light source. In addition, I can use it as a reflected
light microscope, by focusing a light beam on the surface of specimens. The multiple capabilities is economical,
because purchasing specialized microscopes, for each of the above, would cost
thousands. My microscope with all
of the above functions only cost about $1500.
Oil Immersion Objectives For High Magnification
When magnifications are in the
range of 1000X, the tiny gap of air between the specimen and the microscope
objective can be a problem. The oil
immersion objective solves this problem.
This type of objective is immersed in oil to eliminate the tiny gap of
air between the specimen and the objective. This is somewhat messy, but it is
necessary for high magnification with the conventional light microscope.
The oil used with this type of
objective can make it difficult to observe live microorganisms. However, from experience and trial and
error, I devised a simple method of viewing live microorganisms with oil immersion
objectives. With this method, the
specimen is placed on a glass slide, with a tiny drop of water*. Then a cover glass is placed on top of
the specimen, and you gently press on the cover glass, to make it as flat as
possible. After this, you put the
slide under the microscope, and place a drop of oil on top of the cover
glass. The specimen will usually
remain alive for at least a few minutes, in the tiny drop of water under the
cover glass. A slightly different
technique involves placing the lives specimen with a tiny drop of water*
on a slide, and placing a tiny drop of immersion oil* on top of the drop
of water. After this, a cover glass
is placed on top of the specimen, and then the slide is placed under the
microscope, with another drop of immersion oil between the objective and the
slide. These techniques allow the
viewing of live bacteria and blood cells.
*Note, when I use the terminology
tiny drop of water, or tiny drop of immersion oil, I am referring
to a speck of water or oil that is so tiny, that it does not look at all like a
drop. It looks more as if the
surface of the slide is wet, or covered with an extremely thin layer of
liquid. Keep in mind that at this
level of magnification, 1000 X, 100th of an inch is very
significant. An object 100th of an
inch would appear 10 inches in length when viewed at this level of
magnification. A drop of water
100th of an inch high, would-be a very great depth that would cause a problem
at a magnification of 1000X. This
will be explained in more detail under the following heading.
PROBLEMS AND TECHNIQUES WITH THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
A major problem with the light
microscope is a lack of depth of field.
That is, when one section of the specimen is in sharp focus, other
sections that are not in the same plane maybe out of focus. This is usually not too much of a
problem when the magnification is 100 times, or less. However, with magnifications over 100 times,
it can be a major difficulty, unless the specimen is perfectly flat. Generally, the higher the magnification,
the lower the depth of field will be.
A 1000th of an inch variation in thickness of a specimen will be a major
problem at 400 to 1000 times. In
such a case, it may be necessary to view sections of the specimen by changing
the focus of the microscope. The
other alternative is to prepare the specimen so it is perfectly flat. This is quite feasible if the specimen
is dead. If the specimen is alive,
the task is more difficult.
However, you can gently press a cover glass on the specimen, with the
goal of pushing out any excess water, and making the system as flat as
possible. Usually to do this successfully, it is necessary to remove some or all
of any foreign material, debris, growth media, and/or dead or decaying plant or
animal matter, from the microscope slide.
This can sometimes be difficult, because the microorganisms may be
dispersed in one or more of the above, and it might be impossible in many
cases.
The Movement Of Live Microorganisms Can Make Observations Or Photography
Difficult, But With The Right Techniques This Problem Can Be Circumvented.
A major problem when viewing certain types of
live microorganisms is their movement, which can interfere with
observation. This can be an even
more difficult challenge if you are trying to photograph them. I have found a solution to this problem
that sometimes works quite well.
This involves placing the specimen under the microscope, and searching
for microorganisms that are trapped in a confined space, or setting up
conditions that result in trapping the microorganism in a tiny area. The traps that confine the
microorganisms can be very tiny drops of water, surrounded by debris, or air bubbles. One of the easiest ways of achieving
this is to place a tiny drop of water with the microorganisms on a microscope
slide, and letting the water evaporate.
As the water evaporates, the microorganisms will have less and less
space to move, and they eventually will be trapped in a confined space that is
small enough for good observation.
This generally involves observing the specimen continuously, until
enough of the water has evaporated to confine the microorganisms into a tiny
area suitable for observation or photography. This technique works exceptionally well
with large microorganisms, under magnification of 100 times or less, without
the use of a cover glass. This
permits easy evaporation of the water.
However, even under higher levels of magnification, which generally
require a cover glass, the water will eventually evaporate. In addition, when microorganisms are
placed on a microscope slide with a cover glass, they will eventually slow
down, for a number of reasons, such as lack of oxygen.
Another
method of slowing down microorganisms that might be feasible in some cases is
to lower the temperature of the specimen. That is microorganisms are likely to
move slower in cold water, which will permit better viewing and photography.
The Problem Of Contrast And Detail With Light Microscopes
A
major challenge with light microscopes is obtaining adequate contrast, to
reveal detail of structural components of tiny objects. However, very often dyes I
used to increase contrast of a specimen.
This means killing the specimen.
This might prevent the observation of important phenomena. For example, it is not possible to view
the behavior of the microorganism when it is dead. That is you cannot see how the
microorganism moves, eats, reproduces, and how it reacts and
interacts with its environment.
In addition, the structural components may be distorted when the
microorganism is dead. This is very
likely to be the case if the microorganism is also dried, and fixed on a slide
with a cover glass.
Thus,
dyes definitely have disadvantages, but they also have very significant utility
in some cases. There
are dyes that
stain specific sections of a cell or its organelles. This can increase the contrast in a very
selective way, which provides clear viewing of the cell structures you want to
study. In some cases, the dyes can make a structure that is totally, or almost
totally invisible, easy to see.
However, there is still a much better choice then dyes, to view specific structures of the cell, which is
the electron microscope, and electron-scanning microscope to view surface
structures.
The Main Advantage Of The Light Microscope (Observation Of Living
Microorganisms) Is Defeated When Conventional Dyes Are
Used
The main advantage of light
microscopes, over other devices, such as the electron-scanning microscope, is
the capability of observing live microorganisms, and there behavior. The techniques mentioned above, to
increase contrast, by using dyes defeats the main advantage of
the light microscope. However,
there are a number of techniques, discussed in the following paragraphs, that
can be used to increase contrast, without killing the microorganisms.
Methods Of Increasing Contrast And Detail Of Microorganisms, Without
Killing Them
Many of the variations of the
light microscope are to increase the contrast and detail of microscopic
objects. Phase contrast, and dark
field microscopes can produce significantly better images, with more contrast
and detail, with some specimens. I
have found that using a polarizing device, and adjusting it for maximum
contrast, without color distortion, can sometimes produce better contrast and
detail, than the above. This is
based on my experience with the equipment I own, and it may differ with other
phase contrast microscopes.
Using reflected light with a
light microscope can increase the contrast of surface structures, probably
better than any technique. However,
it is difficult to use reflected light with high magnifications, but I have
been able to use the technique for magnifications up to 400X. The photographs below illustrate the
results of this technique.
The following photograph involved a microscope
magnification of 400 times, and it was taken with reflected light. The actual magnification that you are
viewing depends on the size of your screen, but it is probably over 400
times. The specimen (algae) was
obtained from water from one of the lakes in
The photograph below was digitally enhanced.
Below
is the same photograph before it was digitally enhanced.
Below is a photograph of the
same specimen, take in with transmitted light, at the same magnification (400 times). This photograph was digitally enhanced.
This is the same photograph
as above, before it was digitally enhanced. The digitally enhanced version is a more
accurate rendition, because it removed the brown color cast that resulted from
the color temperature of the halogen light source that is built into the
microscope.
It is
probably apparent at this point, that digitally enhancing photomicrographs has
a great deal of utility. This is
discussed in the following paragraphs.
Digital Photography, And Photo Editing Software, Is One Of The
All of the techniques mentioned
above are quite effective in increasing contrast with the light microscope. However, I have found that the best way
to increase contrast with the light microscope without killing the specimen is
to use digital photography, and photo editing software. In its simplest form, this involves a
digital camera connected to a microscope.
After the photographs have been taken, they are enhanced with photo
editing software on a computer. One
of the major advantages of this technique is you can digitally enhance the
structures that you are interested in.
You can crop out unwanted material, and produce a clear photographic
image on the computer screen.
All of the other methods of
increasing contrast and detail mentioned above, phase contrast, dark field,
reflected light, polarized light, can also be used with digital enhancement
techniques. When all of these techniques are used in the optimum combination,
the best results are obtained.
With digital photography and
photo editing software, you can often obtain a number of images from one
photograph, which maximizes contrast and visibility of different portions of
the specimen. For example, from the
same photograph, of a microorganism, you can create one picture that maximizes
the contrast and detail of the surface structure, and another picture that
maximizes the contrast and detail of the internal structures. Sometimes after
digitally enhancing the photograph, you can obtain additional data that was not
visible when you examine the untreated photograph, or looked at the specimen
through the microscope. This is
more likely to be the case when the photograph is digitally enhanced a number
of ways, with the goal of finding additional data.
MY PHOTOGRAPHIC WORK AND EXPERIMENTS WITH THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE
Conventional dyes used to
enhance detail in microorganisms involve killing the specimen. This process can also involve
dehydration of the specimen. All of
this prevents the observation of the behavior of live microorganisms, and it
may distort the shape and structure of the specimen. Thus, alternative methods of increasing
detail and contrast of microscopic specimens are interesting and can provide
additional information about the structure and behavior of microorganisms.
The
most sophisticated method of increasing contrast and detail in live
microorganisms, involves digital photography and related computer technology. This includes the use of photo editing
software. Some of this was already
discussed in this book, but in this subsection, the results and utility of this
methodology will be demonstrated with a series of photomicrographs that I have
taken specifically for this section of the book.
I
used a number of my own techniques for some of the following photographs. This includes the use of reflected
light, and a combination of reflected and transmitted light.
The
organism in the following photograph was relatively large, about the size of a
pinhead. It was obtained from water
from one of the lakes in
This picture is from the same
photograph as above, except it is cropped for a close-up view.
Below is the original
photograph before it was digitally enhanced. Note that the original photograph was
underexposed. Sometimes
deliberately under exposing and digitally enhancing produces more detail.
This is another photograph of
the same organism, which was also taken with a combination of transmitted and
reflected light.
The picture below, of the
claw of the organism was obtained by cropping the above photograph, with photo
editing software, for a close-up view.
The following photograph is
of the same organism, showing the claw.
However, this photograph was taken with transmitted light, and it has
not been digitally enhanced.
The following is the same
photograph as above, after it was digitally enhanced, and cropped, with photo
editing software, for a close-up view.
The claw is revealed in detail, after cropping and color correction was
performed with photo editing software.
The following photographs are
of a microorganism obtained from a lake in
The following picture was
obtained from the above photograph by cropping for a close-up, with photo
editing software.
This is an even closer
cropping of the same photograph.
The three pictures above were
obtained from the photograph below, which is not digitally enhanced.
Observation of this
microorganism revealed some interesting behavior. Specifically, it has fin-like structures
that it can fold downward toward its body.
In the photographs above, the fin-like structures are extended. In the following photograph, the
microorganism moved the fin-like structures downward toward its body. This is clearly visible in the
photograph below. This photograph
is digitally enhanced.
This is the same photograph
as above, before it was digitally enhanced.
The following shows the
microorganism with its fin like structures extended once again. The photograph on the left was digitally
enhanced.
The organism in the following
photograph is magnified over 50 times.
The actual magnification that you see depends on the size of your
computer screen. The following
photograph is digitally enhanced.
Below is the original
photograph, before it was digitally enhanced with photo editing software.
The following photograph
presents a slightly different view of the same organism. This photograph was digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as above, before it was cropped and digitally enhanced with photo
editing software.
The photograph on the left was
digitally enhanced. The picture on
the right was the original, and it is not digitally enhanced.
There were two of these
organisms on the same microscope slide, as can be seen in the following
photograph, which is digitally enhanced.
The photograph below is the
same as above, before it was digitally enhanced.
As I was exploring a microscope slide, with water and debris from one
of
Below is the original
photograph before it was digitally enhanced.
The following pictures are of
the same organisms, but they were photographed with a combination of
transmitted and reflected light.
The following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following picture was
cropped from the above photograph.
The following photograph was
cropped from the above, and treated with photo editing software, to determine
if the organisms were physically connected. The digitally enhanced image below
indicates that there was a physical connection between these organisms.
The following photograph is
not digitally enhanced, and it was used to obtain the pictures above.
The following photographs are
digitally enhanced, to evaluate the physical connection between the organisms.
The following photograph is
not digitally enhanced. It was used
to obtain the pictures presented above, by various types of digital enhancement
with photo editing software. This
photograph was taken with a combination of transmitted and reflected light.
The following photographs are of various types of
allergy, from water obtained from one of
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following
photograph is the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is the
same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The following photograph was
taken with reflected light. It is
digitally enhanced.
The following
photograph is the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following
photograph is the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The following photograph was
taken with a combination of reflected and transmitted light. It is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph
is the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The
following photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
Experiments
Involving The Use Of Non-Toxic Dyes To Observe And Photograph Live
Microorganisms
This subsection is focused on
an experimental method that I am trying to develop, involving the use of
non-toxic dyes to enhance detail and contrast of microorganisms. I have tried conventional food
colorings, available in supermarkets, for the following photomicrographs. I also used digital enhancement
techniques as noted in the following photomicrographs.
This
microorganism is magnified over 100 times, and it was obtained from water from
one of the lakes in
Below is the original
photograph, before it was digitally enhanced. Note, the original photograph was
underexposed.
The
same specimen as above photographed in a slightly different position. This photograph was digitally enhanced.
This is the same photograph
as above, before it was digitally enhanced.
The following photographs are from the same specimen, without food
coloring. With this specimen, the
addition of dye did not provide any additional detail, when compared to
digitally enhancing techniques without dye. The following three pictures are
digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
not digitally enhanced. The three pictures
above were obtained from this photograph, by applying digital enhancement
techniques, with photo editing software.
The following three
photographs are of the same specimen, with green food coloring. As can be seen from these photographs,
the specimen does not appear to be moving.
At this point, the food coloring might have killed the specimen, perhaps
because it contains a preservative, consisting of 0.1% propylparaben. However, even when the dye kills the
specimen in this way, there is a chance to observe its behavior before the dye
is added. In addition, the actual
shape of the specimen and its internal structures are more likely to be
preserved with this method, especially when compared to conventional methods of
applying dye to dehydrated specimens. The following photographs are not
digitally enhanced.
The
following series of photographs appears to be baby snails, which were
photographed while still in their eggs.
I obtained these specimens from a sample of water from
This photograph is the same
as above, except it is not digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
of baby snail (still alive), in its egg, with green food coloring used as a
dye. This photograph is digitally
enhanced.
This is the same photograph
as above, but it is not digitally enhanced.
The following series of photographs are of the baby snails without any
die added. This photograph is digitally
enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as the above, but it was cropped for a closer view, with photo editing
software.
This photograph is digitally enhanced.
The following photograph is
the same as the above, but it was cropped for a closer view, with photo editing
software.
The following series of
photographs show the snail eggs in clusters, with the green food coloring
immersed throughout the system.
The dye (green food coloring) did not appear to
provide any additional detail, when compared with digitally enhancement
techniques, with these specimens either.
With the use of better dyes, and some specimens, additional detail might
be seen. I expect to continue these
experiments in the future with different types of nontoxic dyes. However, from all the photographs above,
it should be apparent that the ideal method of obtaining additional contrast
and detail with photomicrographs is computer technology and digital enhancement
techniques.
25 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
MORE IDEAS ON DIGITAL
ENHANCEMENT TECHNIQUES
When Using Digital Enhancement Techniques, Be
Certain That You Are Not Distorting The Data, Or Producing A Deceptive
Photograph.
When using photo-editing software
with photomicrographs it is necessary to avoid distorting the data. That is with the improper use of photo editing software, it is possible to enhance a photograph
in ways that are deceiving, or produce false data, and reduces the accuracy and
validity of the photograph.
The ideal way to avoid deception
is to provide the original photographs along with the pictures that were
treated with photo editing software, in the same document. The photographs should be clearly
labeled, indicating which photographs were digitally enhanced. I use this method in the photomicrographs
I presented in this chapter.
When
space is limited, it may not even be necessary to provide the photograph that
was not digitally enhanced. Just
revealing that the
image was digitally enhanced is another way of avoiding deception. This can include a brief statement
explaining what changes are the results of digital enhancement. For example, you can state that the
colors were changed with photo editing software to increase the contrast of the
specimen.
All of the above might be
especially important when the photograph has been digitally enhanced to a very
great degree. It is probably unnecessary
when the photograph is only moderately enhanced, such as to crop out unwanted
material, or to increase contrast in a way that does not distort the colors or
shape of the specimen.
The Best Method: Digital Camera, Microscope, And
Computer Hooked Up Together While Taking Photographs
I have found that one of the best
methods of using digital photography with the light microscope is to have the
camera hooked up to a computer when taking the photographs. When this is done, you can see the photographs
enlarged on the computer screen as soon as the photograph is taken. This provides the opportunity of varying
the exposure, the focus, the light intensity, the microscope, condenser and
diaphragm, as well as many other settings, until you get the best possible
image. Incidentally, all of this is
quite economical, because digital photography does not require any expenditure
for film or processing. When I used
this technique, I sometimes take several dozen photographs of a specimen to
obtain the best results. Doing this
with conventional film could easily cost over $200 for film and processing, for
one or two good photographs of a specimen.
THE
LIMITATIONS OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE, AND THE ALTERNATIVES, FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPE, ELECTRON MICROSCOPE, ELECTRON-SCANNING
MICROSCOPE
The Magnification Limitations Of The Light
Microscope
Even with the best techniques and
equipment, the conventional light microscope is limited in terms of
magnification. Most sources put the
upper limits of a light microscope at 1000 to 1200 times. However, I have found that you can
actually get clear images and photographs significantly larger than that with
the light microscope, but the detail is limited. When you go beyond 1000 to 1200 times
with the conventional light microscope, you get what is called empty
magnification. This means that you
usually will not get any more data by going beyond the above limits, but
sometimes you can get a more attractive and interesting
photomicrograph.
The limitations of the light
microscope are the result of the wavelength of light, which is roughly in the
range of 400 to 700 nm, depending on the color. By using light with shorter wavelengths,
such as blue or violet, you can sometimes, obtain more detail with a light
microscope. However, the
magnification is still relatively limited.
The resolving power of a conventional light microscope is approximately
220 nm.
Ultraviolet Light And The Fluorescence Microscope
To obtain more than 1000X with
the technology that is available at this time, it is necessary to use
microscopes that utilize shorter wavelengths than visible light. The fluorescence microscope uses
ultraviolet light, with wavelengths ranging from approximately 102 to 400nm,
and it has a resolution of about 110nm.
The ultraviolet light is converted to visible light when it is reflected
off the specimen. This does not
always happen with untreated specimens.
Thus, it is usually necessary to use special fluorescence dyes that
glow with visible light, when they are exposed to ultraviolet light. This generally requires killing the
specimen.
The Electron Microscope
The electron microscope projects
a beam of electrons, with a wavelength of about .005 nm, through a
specimen. This is obviously a much
shorter wavelength than the above.
Its resolving power is about 1 nm, and it can magnify 100,000 times, and
in some cases even more.
The Electron Scanning Microscope
The electron-scanning microscope,
bounces a beam of electrons off the surface of a specimen, and it provides
images that reveal the surface structure of the specimen. In a sense, the image that results from
this type of microscope is similar to the image you obtain when you use
reflected light with a light microscope.
Of course, the electron-scanning microscope can produce far more detail,
and it can, provide magnifications of 10,000 times or more.
Does The Preparation Process (Covering The Specimen
With Metal) For Electron Microscopes Produce Distortions Or Reduce Detail?
The microscopes discussed above
can provide magnifications of hundreds of times greater than the light
microscope, but only with dead specimens, that have been dried and covered with a thin layer of
metal. This raises the question
does the metal or the preparation process distort the specimen. It probably does in some cases, and it
almost certainly obscures or reduces some of the detail that would be visible
if the metal covering was unneeded.
However, with the current state of technology, the electron microscope and
electron-scanning microscope are the most powerful instruments available.
Perhaps, new methods of observing
microscopic structures will be developed that will not require a metal coating
for great levels of magnification.
This is at least theoretically possible, because a beam of electrons can
pass through almost any tiny object.
A beam of electrons can also at least theoretically be bounced off
objects without metal coating, but perhaps not with a very great
efficiency. However, this does not
imply that a clear image can be obtained in this way, at least with our current
technology.
There are ongoing experiments
throughout the world that involve new types of microscopes, which will become
apparent when you examine the following websites.
Websites On Diverse Aspects Of Microscope
Technologies
Search phrase with Google: New technology to light
microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=New+technology+to+light+microscope&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.physorg.com/news74439510.html Words on website: A new light microscope so powerful
that it allows scientists peering inside cells to discern the precise location
of nearly each individual protein they are studying has been developed and
successfully demonstrated
http://harvardmagazine.com/2008/05/shedding-light-on-life.html
Words on website: Shedding Light on Life Advances in
optical microscopy reveal biological processes as they unfold.
http://www.technologyreview.com/Biotech/20803/ Words on website:
Looking into Live Cells at Nanoscale Resolution
The highest-resolution 3-D light microscope ever made will
change how biologists understand cells.
http://www.sciencentral.com/articles/view.php3?type=article&article_id=218393115
Words on website: Biologists can now observe the
workings inside our cells in full color, 3-D — and soon to be real-time.
As this ScienCentral News video explains, scientists have invented a way to
trick a light microscope into revealing more details than ever before seen.
http://technology.newscientist.com/article/dn14136-microscope-on-a-chip-to-give-four-times-the-detail.html
Words on website:
Microscope on a chip' to give four times the detail
Search phrase with Google: Experimental microscopes
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Experimental+microscopes
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://jmicro.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/4/1/5 Words on website: Journal of Electron Microscopy New 300 kV Electron Microscope
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DEFD7163FF932A15752C1A96F948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all
Words on website: New Lasers Pierce Veil Of the Cell
http://physics.uchicago.edu/x_applied.html Words on website: Experimental Applied Physics and
Experimental Nuclear Physics
http://www-optics.unine.ch/former/microoptics/high_res_microscope/high_res_microscope.html
Words
on website: High magnification experimental
methods with the light microscope
http://www.microscopyu.com/articles/livecellimaging/culturechamberreferences.html Words on website: Live-Cell Imaging Chambers
http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1769977
Words on website: Digital
slide and virtual microscopy based routine and telepathology evaluation of
routine gastrointestinal biopsy specimens
Search phrase with Google: Words on website: Innovations in Light Microscopy http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Innovations+in+Light+Microscopy This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.microscopyu.com/ Welcome to Nikon's MicroscopyU website, designed to provide
an educational forum for all aspects of optical microscopy, digital imaging,
and photomicrography.
http://www.jcb.org/cgi/content/full/165/1/21 Words on website: A tribute to Shinya Inoue and innovation in light
microscopy
http://www.max-planck-innovation.de/en/news/press_releases/news.php?id=545 Words on website: Max Planck Innovation Concludes
Licensing Agreement for Technology Providing Unlimited Resolution in Microscopy
http://www.nikoninstruments.com/news.php?n=372 Words on website:
http://www.biologymad.com/cells/microscopy.htm#light%20microscope Words on website: Units of measurement
Search phrase with Google: The Electron Scanning Microscope
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Electron+Scanning+Microscope&btnG=Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope Words on website: Scanning electron microscope
http://www.mos.org/sln/SEM/ Words on website: The Electron Scanning Microscope
http://www.mse.iastate.edu/microscopy/home.html Words on website: Welcome to the world
of scanning electron microscopy
Search phrase with Google: Phase contrast microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Phase+contrast+microscope&btnG=Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.microscopyu.com/articles/phasecontrast/phasemicroscopy.html Words on website: Phase contrast microscopy, first
described in 1934 by Dutch physicist Frits Zernike,
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/microscopes/phase/index.html Words on website: The Phase Contrast Microscope
Search phrase with Google: Dark field microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Dark+field+microscope
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~bioslabs/methods/microscopy/dfield.html Words on website: Dark Field Viewing
Search phrase with Google: Polarizing light microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Polarizing+light+microscope
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.olympusmicro.com/primer/techniques/polarized/polarizedhome.html Words on website: Polarized Light Microscopy
Search phrase with Google: The Electron Microscope http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Electron+Microscope
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_microscope Words
on website: Electron microscope
http://emu.arsusda.gov/snowsite/default.html Words on website: Electron
Microscope Unit and Show Page
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/microscopes/tem/index.html Words on website: The Transmission Electron
Microscope
http://www.hei.org/research/aemi/emt.htm Words
on website: Ahmanson Center for Advanced Electron Microscopy and Imaging
http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/45/989/ Words
on wedsite: Laser Plasma Soft
X-ray Microscope with Wolter Mirrors for Observation of Biological Specimens in
Air
26 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 12 Microbiology: Cells And Related Concepts
THE
CELL, AND RELATED CONCEPTS
Cells Are The Smallest Living Entities,
But They Are Very Complex
A quick glance at most cells with a low-power microscope, can give the
false impression that they are simple structures. With low-power magnification, you may
see an imperfect spherical or cubic structure, which may also reveal a central
portion that is darker than the outer portion. If the cell is alive, it may become apparent
that it contains a fluid. However,
cells are complex biochemical machines, not simple structures.
Cells
are actually a type of chemical machine, which contain smaller chemical
machines that a specialized to perform various tasks. These tiny components are called
organelles. Some examples of
organelles are mitochondria, chloroplasts, and ribosomes. Subcellular structures will be discussed
in more detail later on in this book.
A FEW
MAJOR SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES OF CELLS
In What Way Are Cells Similar To Each
Other
All living things consist of one or more cells. Some living things are composed of one
cell, a few cells, or a huge number of cells. Cells come from other cells, and they do
not spontaneously form from chemicals in the environment. The structure and functionality of cells
is based on carbon, and a number of other elements. Some cells may have more of one element
than another element. However, all
cells are essentially composed of the same basic elements. This includes carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, oxygen, sulfur, as well as a number of other
elements. All living cells contain
water.
Essentially, all cells have membranes, and
mechanisms for the production of energy, and reproduction. The reproductive mechanism involves
nucleic acid.
What Are Some Of The Ways That Cells
Differ From Each Other?
Many people would assume that all living things
require oxygen for energy production, which is true for green plants and
animals. However, some single cell
organisms do not consume oxygen for energy production. These cells are generally bacteria of
some type.
Some cells have a relatively complex internal
structure, including a nucleus, and a number of other structures in the
cytoplasm (organelles). These cells
are called eukaryotes. However, there are relatively simple
cells that do not have these structures, and they are generally bacteria like
cells, called prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes will be discussed in detail later on in this
part of the book.
CELLS CAN BE SEPARATED INTO CATEGORIES IN A NUMBER OF WAYS
Single Celled
Organisms, And Cells From Multicellular Organisms
Cells can be placed into two
categories based on whether they are single celled organisms, or part of a
multicellular organism. For
example, parameciums and amebas live in lakes. Blood and bone cells live inside an
animal, and they comprise the structure of a multicellular organism. In addition, parameciums and amebas are
produced by other parameciums and amebas.
However, the ultimate origin of cells of a multicellular organism are
generally produced from a single cell, such as a fertilized egg, and the cells
are differentiated into various types as the fertilized egg matures.
Cells With And
Without Locomotion
Some cells have structures to
move from one point to another in their environment, especially for obtaining
food, and they resemble animals.
They generally have structures that are specialized for movement, such
as cilia or flagella, which will be discussed later on in this book. These cells obtained their food by
gathering bits of debris, or they may eat living microorganisms. The other category of cells do NOT have specialized
structures to move through their environment, and they may resemble plants. However, they may or may not be part of a
plant, and they may or may not be classified as plants, based on the current
system of classification. They
might be anchored to another entity, or part of a multicellular organism. They may move about as the result of
movements of the entity they are attached to, or a part of, or they may float
free with water or air currents.
Some of these cells produce their own food from photosynthesis, in a way
that is very similar to green plants.
They may also live off dead microorganisms, or dead plants and
animals.
Another way of categorizing
Living cells relates to their internal structure and complexity, based on their
internal membranes, surrounding the nucleus and organelles. These categories are eukaryotes
and prokaryotes.
Most sources start with a
discussion of the relatively simpler prokaryotes, but I will discuss eukaryotes
first because most of us are more familiar with this category.
Eukaryotes are cells that have
membranes enclosing its nucleus and organelles. That is they have a nucleus,
mitochondria, and other membrane-bound organelles. (Organelles will be
discussed later on in this book.)
All plant and animal cells are Eukaryotes. The cells of fungi and protozoa are also
Eukaryotes.
From a simplified perspective,
eukaryotes can be thought of as more complex, non-bacteria like cells that are
usually larger than prokaryotes.
Most eukaryotes can be seen with
the light microscope, with magnifications less than 1000X. The larger eukaryotes can be easily seen
at magnifications of 100X. There
internal structure and organelles may be also visible with the light
microscope, especially for the very large eukaryotes. However, to see the fine detail of their
organelles requires and electron microscope.
The cells of the human body, and
other animals, plants and fungi are generally classified as eukaryotes.
How Do Eukaryotes
Reproduce?
Eukaryotes reproduce a number of
ways, depending on the type of cell.
The simplest eukaryotes are singled cell organisms, such as
protozoa. These cells generally
reproduce in a way that is similar to prokaryotes. That is, a young cell grows and matures,
and it eventually splits into two cells.
There may also be occasional exchanges of genetic material from one cell
to another. These cells reproduce
by binary fission. This involves
the growth of the cell until a point is reached, where the cell divides into
two new cells (See this website for an interesting video on binary fission http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FcjAsTTN8qU )
Eukaryotes that are a part of an
animal, such as mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, are initially produced
from a fertilized egg. As the egg
matures, it will eventually split into two cells, four cells, eight cells,
etc. As this continues, there will
be a point where the cells are modified to form the specialized structures and
organs found in mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
Eukaryotic cells that are part of
green plants may also develop in a way that is more or less similar to animal
cells. This involves the
development of an egg, which eventually produces many cells that differentiate,
to form the cells needed for the various structures and functions of the
plant.
Prokaryotes are, relatively
simple cells that do not have membranes enclosing their nucleus and
organelles. That is these cells do
not have a clearly delineated nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, golgi
apparatus, or endoplasmic reticulum.
The structural configurations of their plasma membrane appear to serve
the functions of the organelles found in eukaryotes. That is, various chemical reactions take
place on the internal surface of the membrane, instead of the interior of
organelles.
The most well known example of
prokaryotes is bacteria. Blue-green
algae are another example.
Blue-green algae are a bacteria-like cell with chlorophyll, and it is also
called cyanobacteria.
From a simplified perspective,
prokaryotes can be thought of as bacteria-like-cells, which are generally
relatively simple and primitive.
Most prokaryotes are relatively
small, but generally, they can be seen as individual cells with a light
microscope, but with some degree of difficulty. This can involve magnifications of 1000X
and oil immersion objectives.
However, to see the fine structural detail of prokaryotes requires the
electron microscope.
Prokaryotes generally reproduce
by binary fission. This generally
involves a young cell that grows in size to a larger mature cell, which
eventually splits into two new cells.
Some prokaryotes also exchange genetic material with each other,
occasionally, but they still reproduce by binary fission.
The occasional exchanges of
genetic material can have a very significant survival advantage, because it
provides a great degree of genetic diversity. Binary fission by itself will not
provide genetic diversity. For
example, a single bacterium can produce a huge colony, with identical genetic
material, with binary fission. If
the colony is exposed to a toxin, such as penicillin, the entire population
might be destroyed. However, with
the genetic diversity produced by the exchange of genetic material, a few of
the bacteria may have the right genetic makeup to survive, or even thrive, in
the presence of penicillin. These
bacteria can replace the destroyed colony, with a large population of
penicillin resistant bacteria. This
is obviously a very significant survival advantage, FOR THE BACTERIA.
Prokaryotes, as well as most
living things, can also develop genetic diversity by mutations. However, only a very small percentage of
mutations are a survival advantage.
Most mutations result in an early death of the organism, and/or a
failure to reproduce. The genetic
diversity produced by the exchange of genetic material, usually has a very high
probability of producing organisms that survive and reproduce.
Another Category Of Cells Is Archaea, Which
Was At One Time Called Archaebacteria
Another category of cells is Archaea. These cells are more or less similar to
bacteria, in terms of not having a nucleus. In addition, many archaea looks similar
to bacteria. However, archaea are
very different from other microorganisms.
Some species of archaea can live in very hot and toxic
environments. Some of them actually
live off inorganic compounds, and they utilize chemicals that would be toxic to
most living things.
For more information, see the
following websites.
Websites On Prokaryotes And Eukaryotes http://www.google.com/search?sourceid=navclient&ie=UTF-8&rlz=1T4ADBR_enUS230US230&q=Websites+On+Prokaryotes+And+Eukaryotes
http://www2.gsu.edu/~mstjrh/cells.html Words on wedsite:
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS: AN INTERNET BASED
LESSON PLAN
http://microbiology.suite101.com/article.cfm/prokaryotic_and_eukaryotic_cells Words on wedsite: Prokaryotic
and Eukaryotic Cells The Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
http://www.bio-computing.org/showabstract.php?pmid=12969510
Words
on wedsite: The COG database: an updated version
includes eukaryotes.
http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/research/groups/jdeacon/microbes/#The Words on wedsite: The
Microbial World Microorganisms and microbial activities
27 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The process of reproduction of prokaryotes
that was described above, can represent a great medical challenge for
physicians, and a serious medical problem for their patients, when an
infectious bacteria, develops resistance to an antibiotic. When an antibiotic is used, there is a
high probability that there is at least one strain of bacteria that is
resistant to the drug. The reason
for this is antibiotics are generally compounds that exist in nature, as a
defense mechanism for various fungi.
This provides sufficient conditions and time for at least some resistant
strains of bacteria to evolve.
Even if there is no resistant
strain of bacteria, to a specific antibiotic, there is a high probability that
a resistant strain will eventually evolve, as a result of the genetic diversity
produced by the exchange of genetic material from one bacteria to another. In addition, a resistant strain can also
develop at least theoretically, as a result of mutations. The general principle is, if there is
one bacteria that is resistant to antibiotic-X that is capable of reproducing,
by binary fission, an entire strain of bacteria can develop that is resistant
to antibiotic-X.
All of the above, is more or less
a Darwinian evolutionary process for bacteria. It involves the survival of the fittest
bacteria for a given environment, such as the human body with penicillin.
Prokaryotes, including disease
causing bacteria, can reproduce geometrically, under ideal conditions, more or
less involving a sequence similar to the one presented at the end of this
paragraph. The sequence mathematically illustrated at the end of this paragraph
represents a single bacteria, after reproduction for 45 generations. Some strains of bacteria under
appropriate conditions can reproduce every 20 minutes. However, even if we assume that it takes
one hour for each generation, in 45 hours there would be over 17.5 trillion
bacteria, under ideal conditions, as can be seen from the calculations
below. Under less than ideal
conditions, this may take perhaps a week.
Keep in mind that infectious bacteria can spread from one person to
another, and with this rate of reproduction, it is obvious that a single
drug-resistant bacteria can infect thousands or even millions of people in a
few months.
From One Bacteria To Over 17.5 Trillion, In 45 Generations
1 bacteria, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2048, 4096, 8192,
16384, 32768, 65536, 131,072, 262,144, 524288, 1048576, 2097152, 4194304,
8388608, 16777216,
33554432, 67108864, 134217728, 268435456,
536870912, 1073741824, 2147483648, 4294967296, 8589934592, 17179869184,
34359738368, 68719476736, 137438953472, 274877906944, 549755813888,
1099511627776, 2199023255552, 4398046511104, 8796093022208, 17592186044416 Over 17.5 trillion bacteria in 45
generations.
Efforts to Deal with Resistant Strains of Infectious Bacteria
Some of the efforts to deal with
this problem involve the reduction in the use of antibiotics, especially when
there is some degree of uncertainty in relation to a bacterial infection, or
the risk of such an infection. This
does not stop the development of resistant strains of bacteria, but it might slow
up the rate of development of drug-resistant strains. Restricting the use of antibiotics
probably has some serious adverse consequences for at least some patients, as a
result of not receiving needed medication, or receiving the antibiotic after
severe symptoms have developed.
The other method that is used to
deal with resistant strains of infectious bacteria are repeated attempts to
discover new antibiotics. This can
be quite difficult and expensive.
Actually, it may be relatively easy to find natural chemicals that have
antibiotic properties in nature from molds and other fungi and bacteria. However, these chemicals are not
necessarily safe and effective against the bacteria that causes human
diseases.
Another alternative might be to
study the structure and chemical mechanisms of harmful bacteria, with the goal
of synthesizing chemicals that can interfere with the mechanisms that the
bacteria needs for reproduction, or to maintain life. The difficulty with this method is
bacteria use many of the same chemical processes that most cells utilize,
including cells found in the human body.
For example, concentrated alcohol, sodium hydroxide, and sulfuric acid
will kill disease-causing bacteria, but they will also very rapidly destroy
human cells. Thus, it is necessary
to find molecular structures that are unique to the infectious bacteria, and
chemicals that will target the bacterial structures, without harming human
cells. Still another method might
be to develop genetic strains of viruses or bacteria that would attack and
destroy the bacterial agents that cause various diseases, without attacking
human cells. However, even with these techniques, some bacteria might develop varying
degrees of resistance.
AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE, OR SPECULATION, OF PROKARYOTES AND
EUKARYOTES
Prokaryotes were probably the
first living entities on our planet, which is suggested by their relatively
simple structure. The more complex,
eukaryotes might have evolved as a result of tiny prokaryotes
incorporating themselves into the cytoplasm of larger prokaryotes. This is suggested as a possibility
because many of the organelles in eukaryotes appear somewhat similar to
prokaryotes. This includes
mitochondria, chloroplasts, the membrane-bound nucleus, In addition, Eukaryotes
and Prokaryotes have DNA, similar chemical composition and carry out similar
chemical reactions.
28 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 13 Microbiology: The Cellular Structure Of Living
Things
CELLS FROM THE SIMPLEST
PERSPECTIVE
Introductory Concepts, Three Components Of Cells
In
the simplest sense, the typical (eukaryotes) cell can be divided into three sections, which
is the cell membrane, the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Simpler cells such as bacteria (prokaryotes)
that do not have a nucleus, can be divided into two sections, the cell
membrane, and the cell contents.
The cell membrane is the container.
The cytoplasm is the contents of the cell, excluding the nucleus. Most of the following discussion applies
to cells with a membrane-bound nucleus (eukaryotes).
The
cytoplasm contains various structures called organelles. The organelles carry out various
processes needed by the cell, such as energy production, protein synthesis,
storage of wastes, and many other processes. The nucleus is roughly in the center of
the cell, in most species, where it may wobble around. The nucleus contains genetic information
for reproduction, and for various components needed by the cell, such as
proteins, and enzymes.
In the following paragraphs, I
will discuss the various structural components found in cells, in more
detail.
The cell membrane is the outer portion of the
cell, which serves as a container for the contents of the cell. It is a semipermeable membrane, and it
may appear as a simple enclosure, when examined under the microscope. However, cell membranes are very complex
devices, and they may differ from one cell to another in very significant
ways. Most cell membranes from
animal cells, and protozoa, are flexible, and are more or less similar to a
tiny plastic bag filled with water.
However, most plant cells are relatively inflexible as a result of a cellulose
wall that surrounds the cell.
Transport Of Chemicals Through The Cell
Membrane
The cell membrane is a semipermeable structure
that allows certain chemicals to enter, and other chemicals to be
excreted. The chemical exchanges
that take place through the cell membrane can be divided into two categories,
one is an inactive form of transport, and the other is an active form of transport. This is explained under the following
two subheadings.
Inactive Transport Through The Cell
Membrane
Inactive transport through the cell membrane
depends on the concentration of chemicals in the environment versus the
concentration of the chemicals inside the cell. With inactive transport, if the
concentration of a chemical is higher in the exterior of the cell, it will
enter if it is lower in the external environment some of the chemical will
leave the cell. For example, if you
place a plant, such as celery, or carrots, in very salty water, the cells will
take in salt, and they will also excrete some water, which will result in wilting. This type of inactive transport is not
unique to living things. For
example, if you fill a basin with water, and you place a bag made of a
semipermeable membrane filled with salt water, eventually the water in the
basin will be just as salty as the water in the bag. This process will happen quicker at
warmer temperatures. However, if
you used a chemical with a large molecular size, instead of salt, such as
certain proteins, the concentration in the basin and bag will stay the same, if
the molecules cannot pass through the bag.
This applies to cells also.
That is certain substances cannot pass into or out of the cell because
of their molecular structure. For
example, large protein molecules produced by the cell cannot pass through the
cell membrane because of their molecular size.
An Active Form Of Transport Through The
Cell Membrane Requires Energy
The other category of transport through the cell
membrane is an active form of transport, and it involves the consumption of
energy. The active transport can go
against the concentration gradient of the environment. It can transport certain chemicals into
the cell, and it can excrete certain chemicals out of the cell, while going
against the concentration gradient.
It can also prevent substances from entering or leaving the cell in
spite of the concentration gradient.
Protoplasm is a general term,
that refers to living matter of any type.
Essentially protoplasm means one or more living cells, or a mass of live
cells.
Cytoplasm is not a precise
structural component. It is the
entire contents of the cell excluding the nucleus. The cytoplasm contains a number of
organelles, water, electrolytes and other chemicals. The cytoplasm can easily be seen with
large cells, with a light microscope.
In living cells, especially protozoa, it may look like a thick liquid
that swishes around, with the slightest motion of the cell.
Eukaryotes
cells contain a membrane-bound nucleus that more or less looks like a smaller
cell inside the cell, and it contains its own membrane. The nucleus is often in or near the
central portion of the cell, and it can usually be seen with the light
microscope, especially if dyes are
used. When viewing the nucleus in
living cells through the microscope, it is not unusual to see the nucleus
wobbling around inside the cell.
This is especially apparent with large protozoa.
In the nucleus there are the genes, chromosomes,
DNA, RNA, which store the data for cell reproduction, and the creation of various
proteins, enzymes and related structures needed to maintain the cell.
Ribosomes are small organelles that are primarily
composed of ribosomal-RNA, and they are involved with protein synthesis. The RNA contains the instructional code
to create various types of proteins needed by the cell. These instructions are essentially
obtained from the DNA in the nucleus, and are transmitted to the ribosomal
sites by way of transfer RNA (t-RNA).
Mitochondria, is an organelle involved in energy
production, involving a complex series of chemical reactions that is called the
Krebs cycle. With some cells, under
appropriate conditions, it is possible to see mitochondria with the light
microscope, essentially as little specks or dots. However, to make out any detail of the
internal structure of mitochondria, requires an electron microscope. Most likely, the mitochondria have
significantly more structural detail than can be seen with any available device. To see some diagrams and electro-photomicrographs
of the mitochondria see the following websites.
Websites With Photographs And Diagrams Of
The Mitochondria
Search
phrase with Google: Images of mitochondria http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Images+of+mitochondria&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
Search phrase with
Google Images Images
of mitochondria http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=Images+of+mitochondria&um=1&ie=UTF-8
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.wadsworth.org/BMS/SCBlinks/channels2.htm
Words on website: 3D
IMAGES OF MITOCHONDRIA
http://www.med.uiuc.edu/histo/large/atlas/objects/448.htm
Words on website: Spherical
or cigar-shaped organelles, bounded by a double membrane, associated with
aerobic energy (ATP) production from oxidation of fuels
29 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
The Mitochondria And Energy Production
In the mitochondria, a chemical sequence
called the Krebs cycle takes place.
This mechanism involves ATP, which store the energy. ADP is converted to
ATP in an endothermic reaction (energy is absorbed). When the energy in an ATP molecule is
consumed, (in an exothermic reaction) it converts back to ADP. The ADP will be repeatedly recharged
back into ATP in the crib cycle.
ATP is essentially the primary source of energy
for the cells in plants and animals.
However, it should be clear from the above that the mitochondria,
Krebs cycle, and ATP do not create energy. The energy is ultimately obtained from
chemicals that are obtained from food, or the breakdown products of food, such
as glucose.
Mitochondria have their own DNA, and they can
reproduce inside the cell, almost as if they are separate cells within a larger
cell. In certain ways, mitochondria
are similar to prokaryotes
cells. Perhaps at one time early in
the evolutionary period of life they lived as separate cells in the oceans and
rivers and streams. However, mitochondria
are not found as separate entities, and they cannot live outside of the cell
under ordinary conditions.
Chloroplasts
Are Present In Green Plants
Chloroplasts are in a certain sense chemical
machines that are involved with the capture of energy from the sun. That is, chloroplasts are organelles
where photosynthesis takes place, involving the conversion of carbon dioxide
and water to glucose, using sunlight as an energy source. This process requires chlorophyll as a
catalyst.
Some
Cells Have Cell Walls Such As Green Plants And Certain Fungi
There are different types of cell walls that
surround the cell membrane of green plants and certain fungi. The cell walls of green plants are made
of cellulose. The cell walls of
fungi are generally composed of chitin.
Lysosomes are organelles that are
essentially storage vesicles for various digestive enzymes.
Vacuoles
are storage devices that are small bubblelike structures in the cell. They are used for the storage of various
chemicals needed by the cell, as well as the storage of waste products. They are usually more apparent, and
larger in plant cells, but they can be seen in all types of cells, including
animals and protozoa.
Websites On Cells, Organelles
And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: Cells,
Organelles http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Cells%2C+Organelles
http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=Cells,+Organelles&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&resnum=1&ct=titleu Words on website: Images
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/cells.htm Words on website: Cells and Organelles
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/animcell.htm The CELLS alive! animal and plant cells have been replaced by a new, improved animation.
http://www.usoe.k12.ut.us/curr/science/sciber00/7th/cells/sciber/orgtable.htm Words on website: Cell Organelle Table
http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2/4341_endosymbiont.asp Words on website: Did cells acquire
organelles such as mitochondria by gobbling up other cells?
http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/cell/ Words on website: Inside a Cell
Search phrase with Google: The Cell Nucleus http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Cell+Nucleus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus Words on website: Cell nucleus From Wikipedia
http://sun.menloschool.org/~cweaver/cells/e/nucleus/ Words on website: The Nucleus of a Cell
Words on website: CELL NUCLEUS A small flexible sac present in certain
cells and containing DNA.
Search phrase with Google: Chloroplasts
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Chloroplasts&btnG=Search
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chloroplasts.html Words on website: The chloroplast is made up of 3
types of membrane:
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/chloropl.htm Words on website: Chloroplasts are specialized organelles found in
all higher plant cells. These organelles contain the plant cell's chlorophyll,
hence provide the green color. They have a double outer membrane. Within the
stroma are other membrane structures - the thylakoids and grana (singular =
granum) where photosynthesis takes place.
Search phrase with Google: Mitochondria http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Mitochondria
http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=Mitochondria&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&resnum=1&ct=title
Words on website: Images
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/mitoch1.htm
Words on website: Mitochondria: Architecture dictates function
http://www.cellsalive.com/cells/mitochon.htm Words on website:
Mitochondria provide the energy a cell needs to move,
divide, produce secretory products, contract - in short, they are the power
centers of the cell. They are about the size of bacteria but may have different
shapes depending on the cell type.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/Hbase/biology/mitochondria.html Words on website: Mitochondria are the energy factories of the cells.
Search phrase with Google: Peroxisomes http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Peroxisomes&btnG=Search
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peroxisome Words on website:
Peroxisome From Wikipedia
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?indexed=google&rid=cooper.section.1676 Words on website: Functions of Peroxisomes Peroxisome Assembly
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=mboc4.section.2194 Words on website: Peroxisomes
differ from mitochondria and chloroplasts in many ways. Most notably, they are surrounded by
only a single membrane, and they do not contain DNA or ribosomes.
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/P/peroxisome.html Words on website: A microbody,
or small membrane-bounded organelle
found in nearly all eukaryotic
cells, which uses molecular oxygen to oxidize organic molecules
Search phrase
with Google: Centriole and Centrosome http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Centriole+and+Centrosome
ANIMAL CELL CENTROSOME: The centrosome, also called the "microtubule
organizing center", is an area in the cell where microtubles are produced.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centrosome Words on website: Centrosome From Wikipedia
Abstract Centriole and
Centrosome Dynamics during the Embryonic Cell Cycles That Follow the Formation
of the Cellular Blastoderm
http://www.humpath.com/centrosome Words on website:
The centrosome is an indispensable component of the
cell-cycle machinery of eukaryotic cells, and the perturbation of core
centrosomal or centrosome-associated proteins is linked to cell-cycle
misregulation and cancer. Named for its location near the cell centre, the
centrosome, first described by Theodor Boveri in the early 1900s
Search phrase with Google: Ribosomes
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Ribosomes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosome Words on website: Ribosome
From Wikipedia
http://sun.menloschool.org/~cweaver/cells/c/ribosomes/
Words on website: A Ribosome is a cell structure that uses genetic
instructions transported in ribonucleic acid (RNA) to link a specific sequence
of amino acids into chains to form proteins. These organelles are pretty small,
made up of fifty proteins and several long RNA strands bound together.
http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa033000a.htm
Words on website: Ribosomes are responsible for assembling the
proteins of the cell. Ribosomal subunits are synthesized by the nucleolus.
Depending on the protein production level of a particular cell, ribosomes may
number in the millions.
Search phrase with Google: Lysosomes http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Lysosomes&btnG=Search
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysosome Words on website: Lysosome
From Wikipedia
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/olcweb/cgi/pluginpop.cgi?it=swf::535::535::/sites/dl/free/0072437316/120067/bio01.swf::Lysosomes Words on website:
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/lysosome.htm Words on website: How are
lysosomes and peroxisomes produced?
http://library.thinkquest.org/C004535/lysosomes.html Words on website: The lysosome is a membranous
bag which contains hydrolytic enzymes that are used to digest macromolecules.
Search phrase with Google: Golgi Apparatus http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Golgi+Apparatus&btnG=Search
Images
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus Words on website: Golgi apparatus From Wikipedia
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/G/Golgi.html Words on website: The Golgi Apparatus
Search phrase with Google: Endoplasmic Reticulum http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Endoplasmic+Reticulum&btnG=Search
http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=Endoplasmic+Reticulum&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&resnum=1&ct=title Words on website: Images
http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/RER1.htm Words on website:
Endoplasmic reticulum is a network
of tubules, vesicles and sacs that are interconnected. They may serve
specialized functions in the cell including protein synthesis, sequestration of
calcium, production of steroids, storage and production of glycogen, and
insertion of membrane proteins.
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/endoplasmicreticulum/endoplasmicreticulum.html Words on website: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
is a network of flattened sacs and branching tubules that extends throughout
the cytoplasm in plant and animal cells.
30 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Cells have a number of ways
of moving about. In the following
paragraphs, I will discuss five methods of locomotion, which are movements
of cells, as part of a multicellular organism, movement with water and air
currents, and locomotion with cilia, Flagella, and Pseudopod.
Movements Of Cells, As Part Of A
Multicellular Organism
The
most obvious way that sells move from one point to another, can be seen in
multicellular organisms. That is,
the individual cells comprising the organism may not have any means of true
locomotion, but the organism as a whole does have the structures and
functionality needed for locomotion.
Movement With Water And Air Currents
Some cells do not have any apparatus for
locomotion, but they still move about as a result of air or water
currents. This is no doubt the
simplest way of obtaining locomotion.
In lakes, rivers, and oceans, allergy move about as the result of water
currents. The spores and seats
produced by fungi and certain plants, move about as a result of the wind. Red blood cells move through the body
because of the flow of blood produced by the pumping action of the heart.
Most microorganisms that live in water move
because of water currents, regardless of whether they have any means of
locomotion. For example, paramecium
and amoebas have a means of locomotion, but they are also moved about as a
result of water currents.
Movement
Of Cells With Cilia (Locomotion Of
With Cilia Plural
For Cilia
A cilia is a hair like structure that Extends
from the outer portion of the cell membrane. It is used by certain single cell
organisms for locomotion. The
plural for Cilia is cilium.
Specifically, there are usually many cilium on each side of the cell that
move in a series of synchronized rhythms to produce motion through water. They are essentially like a set of tiny
fins or oars for certain single celled organisms. The best example of an organism with
cilium is a paramecium. It is
possible under the right conditions to see the wave-like movements of the
cilium of a paramecium, with a light microscope.
There are certain cells in the respiratory tract
that have cilium like projections, which are used to move debris trapped by
mucus out toward the nose, and/or mouth.
What Is Flagella (Plural Is Flagellum)
Flagella are relatively long tail-like
projections from a cell, that is use for locomotion. The best examples of cells with
flagellum are sperm cells. A cell
with flagella appears to more or less swim like a fish when viewed under the
light microscope. The flagella
looks somewhat like the tailfin of a fish.
Generally, cells that have flagellum, have only
one, but cells that have cilium have many.
What Is A Pseudopod (The Plural Is
Pseudopods Or Pseudopodia)
Some cells, such as amoebas and white blood
cells, move about by extending their cytoplasm in a series of projections
called pseudopods. The cells that
use this type of locomotion are constantly changing in shape as they move
about.
PART FIVE: THE TWO CHAPTERS THAT FOLLOW DEAL WITH
EVOLUTION.
In chapter 14, below, I
present a simplified view of evolution.
In this chapter, I provide a number of Web addresses for additional
information. In chapter-15, Notes
On Evolution, I present a more detailed and complex discussion on various
topics that relate to evolution.
The material in Chapter 15 involves a number of individual topics, some
of which do not relate directly to the biological sciences. However, all of the material provides
insightful information on the general concept of evolution.
Chapter-14 A Summary Of Evolution Of Life On
Planet Earth
HOW
LIFE DEVELOPED? IN A SERIES OF
EVOLUTIONARY STAGES
How did life develop? The quick answer to this question is in
an evolutionary process, involving a series of stages. The series of stages involved an
extremely large number of steps, and the selection process. These evolutionary stages represent a
countless number of steps, which includes chemistry, viable and unviable
mutations, climate changes and many other factors. Below there are brief descriptions of
some of the more important or interesting evolutionary stages.
Any description of the sequence of the
evolutionary stages or the details of the process involves speculation. However, the broad picture of evolution
of life appears to be clear. Most
sources will agree on the general broad details, but there may be disagreements
about the fine details.
All of the above applies to the description of
evolution I present in the following paragraphs.
The Formation Of The
Fundamental Elements Needed For Life
Where
did the elements that are required for life come from? These elements developed
before the Earth existed. It
involved nuclear reactions that took place in the stars. Some of these elements may have evolved
when the known universe first devolved.
This resulted in the evolvement of the 98 natural elements, including
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, potassium, chlorine, etc.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: “How the elements formed” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4ADBS_enUS282&q=%E2%80%9CHow+the+elements+formed%E2%80%9D&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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a different set of websites.
http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:OWR4Nld2BqsJ:www.phys.utk.edu/witek/PHY599/papenbrock.pdf+%22How+did+the+elements+from%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us Words on website: Nuclear structure theory
http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:vkYb9TRjS84J:www.phys.utk.edu/witek/Talks/sanibel07.ppt+%22How+did+the+elements+from%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=us Words on website: Nuclear Structure
This
is a very good website
http://library.thinkquest.org/C003763/index.php?page=origin03
Chemical Evolution
31 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chemical Formation Of Basic Inorganic Compounds
The formation of the inorganic compounds needed
for life involved chemical reactions that take place spontaneously. These reactions release energy. This resulted in the basic and
relatively simple compounds, such as carbon dioxide, sodium chloride, water,
and other simple chemicals. The
most important chemical is water, because the more complex organic chemicals
and the early life forms developed in water.
As you read this chapter, keep in mind that life
began in water, and gradually evolved to organisms that live on land. This includes streams, lakes, rivers,
and oceans. However, there are less
obvious sources of water, such as groundwater, tiny pools of water that
accumulate around rocks and crevices.
Even a speck of moist soil is a pool of water for a microorganism. This is obvious if you ever viewed a
microorganism under the microscope swimming around in a tiny droplet of water.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search phrase with
Google: "Inorganic
Chemicals" needed for life
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Inorganic+Chemicals%22+needed+for+life&btnG=Search
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http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1200/is_22_165/ai_n6110384 Words on website:
Strange brew brings inorganic
chemicals to life
http://chemistry.about.com/od/moleculescompounds/a/inorganic.htm Words on website:
Compounds - Inorganic
Chemicals
http://www.angelfire.com/journal/Philsviews/Science/lifechemicals.html
Words on
websites: The Chemicals of life
32 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of The Organic
Chemicals Needed For Life
Generally,
the chemical reactions needed to create the organic chemicals needed for life,
do not happen spontaneously, and require an input of energy. The energy for these reactions probably
came from the ultraviolet from the sun, lightning, or perhaps radiation from
rocks. These reactions resulted in
amino acids, polypeptides, proteins, and probably many other compounds needed
for the derivation of life.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: The Organic Chemicals needed for life http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Organic+Chemicals+needed+for+life&start=30&sa=N
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http://scicom.ucsc.edu/SciNotes/0301/origin/index.html
FIFTY YEARS AGO,
a graduate student named Stanley Miller tried to create life—or something
like it—in a chemistry lab at the University of Chicago. To approximate
the ocean of primitive Earth, he filled a glass bulb with water, methane,
ammonia, and hydrogen, the chemicals that scientists speculated had dominated
the early atmosphere. Then Miller hooked two electrodes to the bulb to simulate
lightning, and flipped the switch.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WDM-45M8SVT-24&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a58e8d8c8c1c865421194ad2120a5b74 Words on website: Additivity
in Microbial Toxicity of Nonuniform Mixtures of Organic Chemicals
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/10-organic.htm Words on website: Organic Chemistry
33 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Bacteria
(Prokaryotes)
Simple
forms of bacteria probably evolved from the organic chemicals, discussed
above. This might have involved the
development of a large molecule, perhaps a segment of DNA. This may have bound to amino acids, and
fat-like-chemicals, which formed a membrane around the DNA. Structures of this type may have
eventually evolved in a way that they contiguously absorbed chemicals from the
environment, and increased in size, until they become quite large, and split
into two similar structures. This
may have led to the evolvement of bacteria.
For
additional information see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Evolvement+Of+Bacteria+%28Prokaryotes%29&btnG=Google+Search
The Evolvement Of Bacteria (Prokaryotes) This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.wisedude.com/science_engineering/life_forms.htm Words on website: Who Or What is The Father Of
All Life Forms?
http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/jeffares_poole.html Words on website: Were
Bacteria the First Forms of Life on Earth?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria Words on website: Bacteria
From Wikipedia
34 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of
Cyanobacteria, a Prokaryote (Blue-Green Algae)
Cyanobacteria
is a photosynthetic prokaryote.
These probably were the first cells that were capable of photosynthesis,
and they probably evolved from bacteria.
Cyanobacteria probably evolved because it had a very significant
survival advantage, when the organic chemicals in the lakes, streams, rivers,
and oceans were consumed by bacteria.
Photosynthesis provides the ability to obtain energy from the sun by
converting carbon dioxide and water to glucose. This source of energy can be used to
create amino acids from the nitrogen containing compounds in the environment.
The
first species of cyanobacteria may have evolved to other photosynthetic
prokaryotic cells. This may have
eventually led to the evolvement of large colonies of photosynthetic
prokaryotic cells that were joined together.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: The Evolvement Of Cyanobacteria, a
Prokaryote (Blue-Green Algae) http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+Evolvement+Of+Cyanobacteria%2C+a+Prokaryote+%28Blue-Green+Algae%29
This website consists
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria Words on website: Cyanobacteria From
Wikipedia
http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Cyanobacteria Words on website: Cyanobacteria
http://cyanophyta.blogspot.com/ Words on website: Words on website: Cyanobacteria
http://www.bacterialphylogeny.info/photosynthesis.html
Words on
website: Evolutionary Relationships
Among Photosynthetic Bacteria
35 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Archaea: A Simple Species Of Archaea May Have
Developed Before Bacteria
Archaea are cells that are more or less similar
to bacteria structurally. However,
there are significant differences in some aspects of their biochemistry. Some Archaea live off various inorganic
chemicals, (sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, no oxygen). This is a significant survival
advantage, such as after organic material has been consumed by bacteria. There are also Archaea that live off
organic material (such as rotting garbage) and they give off methane.
Archaea may
have evolved from bacteria. However,
certain varieties of Archaea that do not need organic
compounds from the environment might have evolved before bacteria. That is a primitive species of Archaea
may have been the first Living entities on earth. They can live in environments that are
unsuitable for any other living organism.
This includes exceptionally hot, and toxic environments. Some varieties can live in environments
with very high salinity.
Because of the unusual environmental conditions
that many varieties of Archaea live under, there is some possibility that they
may have evolved in other planets, but to date there is no evidence of
this. However, there is some
evidence, as stated in an earlier chapter, that certain varieties of Archaea
form of food chain in the bottom of the ocean, where there is no sunlight. These Archaea live off inorganic
chemicals from the Earth's crust, such as volcanic vents.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolvement Of Archaea cells http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolvement+Of+Archaea+cells+&btnG=Search
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http://artedi.ebc.uu.se/molev/resarch/archaea.html Words on website: The Archaea Group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution
Words on
website:
Archaea From Wikipedia, the
free encyclopedia
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TCX-3WRB4JS-X&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=0ea3457bac9d0ef420bbfc8736429fac Words on website: Archaea:
from genomics to physiology and the origin of life
http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/team/index.cfm?page=missions&teamID=20&year=8 Words on website: It has been hypothesized that life
may have originated and evolved near deep-sea hydrothermal systems, and that
extant organisms living in these likely analogues of early habitats may still
harbor metabolic, physiological, and genetic characteristics of early archaean
life.
36 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes are generally more complex than
prokaryotes. Eukaryotes contain individual
structures bound by their own membranes called organelles. Prokaryotes do not have these
structures. The first eukaryotes
may have evolved as a result of smaller eukaryotes incorporating themselves
into larger prokaryotes, which evolved into very simple eukaryotic cells. This is suggested by some of the
organelles that contain their own DNA, such as mitochondria, and
chloroplasts. However, there are
organelles that do not contain DNA, and they probably evolved as a result of
mutations in the genetic code.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of Eukaryotes http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+Eukaryotes&btnG=Search
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http://www.geocities.com/jjmohn/endosymbiosis.htm
Words on
website: The
Serial Endosymbiosis Theory of Eukaryotic Evolution
http://www.tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3
Words on
website: Eukaryota,
Organisms with nucleated cells
http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020428&ct=1 Words on website: A Structural Analysis of
Eukaryotic Membrane Evolution
http://binf.twoday.net/stories/1384620/ Words on website: Evolution of the eukaryotic
gene structure
37 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Evolvement Of Advanced Forms Of Algae,
With Eukaryotic Cells
Algae,
with eukaryotic cells, may have evolved from cyanobacteria in the manner
described above. This may have
resulted in large colonies of photosynthetic eukaryotic cells joined
together. This might have involved
a mutation that prevented separation of the cells after cellular
reproduction. This could have
eventually led to the evolvement of relatively advanced forms of algae that
have structures resembling leaves, stems and roots. For additional information, see the
following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of Algae with eukaryotic cells http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+Algae+with+eukaryotic+cells&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
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a different set of websites.
http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0000137 Words on website: Algae comprise a
taxonomically informal grouping of many simple, aquatic organisms as well as
those living in damp habitats such as damp rock faces, tree trunks, moss
hummocks or damp soil.
http://www.tuberose.com/Algae.html Words
on website: Algae are a diverse group of
simple, plantlike organisms. Like plants, most algae use the energy of sunlight
to make their own food, a process called photosynthesis.
http://hcs.osu.edu/hcs300/algae.htm Words
on website: It was a huge
step in complexity from a virus to a bacterium and it is almost as large a step
from the prokaryotic cells of bacteria to the eukaryotic cells of algae. Many
of the larger algae are accepted as plants by most people but the absence of
highly differentiated cells distinguishes them from the kingdom Plantae and
places them in the Protista.
38 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Green Plants (That Live
On Land)
The first green plants might have evolved from
advanced forms of algae. This
probably happened over many thousands or millions of years because of lakes
that were drying up, leaving algae exposed to air. This probably initially involved allergy,
or plant like entities, that were anchored on the bottom of shallow lakes, with
leaf-like and stem-like structures extending outside of the water. This could have eventually evolved into
green plants that grow on land, as the lakes began to dry up.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search phrase with Google: "Evolution
of Algae" with eukaryotic cells
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Evolution+of+Algae%22+with+eukaryotic+cells&btnG=Search This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1980/5/80.05.01.x.html
Words on
website: The Evolution of Plants
http://naturalscience.com/ns/cover/cover12.html
Words on
website: Early branch of green plant
evolution discovered
http://www.springerlink.com/content/hk4627094450k314/
Words on
website: Algae are
ubiquitous. They are the primary producers for all the oceans and seas, an area
that covers 71% of the Earth's surface.
39 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Multicellular Fungi (Eukaryotic
Cells)
(Fungi
is plural and Fungus is singular.)
Fungi probably evolved from single celled fungi that evolved in a way
that they formed colonies, with the cells joined together. This may have involved a mutation that
prevented separation of the cells after cellular reproduction. Over time, the simplest fungi may have
evolved to form more complex entities, such as molds, and mushrooms.
For
additional information, see the following websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of "multicellular fungi http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+%22multicellular+fungi%22
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http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/BotanicalSciences/MajorDivisions/KingdomFungi/Fungi/Fungi.htm
Words on
website: Themes
> Science
> Botanical
Sciences > Major
Divisions Of Life > Kingdom
Fungi > Fungi
http://www.ucopenaccess.org/courses/CPBiology/bio_5_1_3_1.swf
Words on
website: The Fungi
http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Multicellular+fungi
Words on
website: fungus
Any of a unique group of organisms that includes moulds, yeasts, rusts, smuts,
mildews, mushrooms, and toadstools.
40 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Protozoa (Eukaryotes
Single Celled Organisms)
The first protozoa may have evolved from the simplest
eukaryotes, as described above.
This included a means of locomotion and with the more advanced varieties
other external structures. The most
well known protozoa are probably amoeba and paramecium. Amoeba probably evolved before
paramecium because of its relatively simple structure.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of Protozoa Words on website: http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+Protozoa This website consists of one or more search
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http://www.bio.usyd.edu.au/Protsvil/evoclass.htm Words on website: Evolution and classification
of protozoa
http://www.cladocera.de/protozoa/protozoa.html Words on website: The taxonomy of protozoa is a
difficult task.
http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/biomedia/text/txt_protozoa.htm Words on website:
41 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Multicellular Organisms
With Locomotion
Some species of protozoa or, or similar cellular
entity, probably led to the development of the first multicellular organism
with locomotion. This may have
happened as a result of mutations that prevented cells from separating after
cell division. This may have
initially resulted in a large mass of cells. This probably eventually evolved into
higher organisms, such as crustaceans and fish.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of multicellular organisms with
locomotion http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+multicellular+organisms+with+locomotion
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http://www.ebiomedia.com/Branches-on-the-Tree-of-Life/Protists.html
Words on
website: Branches
on the Tree of Life: Protists
http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/AnimalEvolution.shtml
Words on
website: For many people animals are perhaps the most familiar, and most
interesting, of living things. This may be because we are animals ourselves.
http://faculty.mccfl.edu/rizkf/OCE1001/OCEnotes/chap12.htm Words on website: Animals are heterotrophs
that depend on other organisms for their source of nutrition. All animals have
3 fundamental tasks: 1. To
find food. 2. To avoid predators. 3. To reproduce.
42 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
The Evolvement Of Insects, Spiders, And
Centipedes
Insects, spiders, and centipedes probably
developed from arthropods that were living in water. This is suggested by aquatic life that
resembles the above, and has a more or less similar segmented body, with
appendages, coupled with an exoskeleton of chitin. One of the most obvious examples is a
lobster, which more or less looks like a very large insect.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
Search phrase with Google: The
Evolvement Of Insects, Spiders, And Centipedes
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http://www.nps.gov/bisc/naturescience/insects.htm
Words
on website: Insects,
Spiders, Centipedes, Millipedes
http://animals.jrank.org/pages/2249/Getting-Know-Insects-Spiders.html
Words on
website: WHAT ARE INSECTS AND SPIDERS?
http://www.saguaro-juniper.com/i_and_i/insects/arthropods.html
Words on
website: ARTHROPODS
(Insects, Spiders, etc.)
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/insects-spiders/bug-forum/?q=forum/21
Words
on website: Centipedes and millipedes are arthropods. They form the group known as
myriapods. They are usually long and thin with noticeably more than 6 or 8 legs
and usually more than 15 pairs.
http://www.princeton.edu/~gkdavis/pairberry.html Words on website: Pax 3/7 Genes and the Evolution
of Arthropod Segmentation
43 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Amphibians
may have evolved from fish. This is
suggested by the appearance and gills seen in young amphibians, before they
undergo metamorphosis. The most
well known example of this is a tadpole developing into a frog.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
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http://www.backyardnature.net/amphibs.htm Words on website: The evolution of amphibians
http://www-biol.paisley.ac.uk/courses/Tatner/biomedia/units/amph3.htm
Words on
website: Amphibian
evolution
http://afarensis.blogsome.com/category/vertebrates/amphibians/ Words on website:Transitions: The Evolution of Life
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v453/n7194/edsumm/e080522-13.html Words on website: An amphibian evolution: Bridging the
gap
http://chem.tufts.edu/science/evolution/fish-amphibian-transition.htm Words on website: Fish to Amphibian Transition
http://www.scaredcricket.com/articles/other/evolution.html Words on website: Evolution of Amphibians &
Reptiles The Paleozoic Era
44 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Reptiles may add evolved from amphibians. This could have involved a selection
process that progressively favored a shorter and shorter time as an aquatic
animal, such as aquatic environments that were drying out, or had many
predators. Another possibility is
reptiles could have also evolved directly from aquatic animals. That is specific aquatic animals may
have evolved where each generation could stay out of water and breathe air for
longer and longer periods, until there was a generation that could live on
land, and breathe air.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
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http://encarta.msn.com/media_461517826/evolution_of_reptiles.html
Words
on website: Evolution of Reptiles
http://www.dbc.uci.edu/~sustain/bio65/lec02/b65lec02.htm
Words
on website: EVOLUTION OF ANIMALS AND THE AGE OF
REPTILES
http://www.answers.com/topic/evolution-of-the-reptiles
Words
on website: The reptiles make up a huge group
of fossil and living vertebrates, ranging in size from tiny thread snakes to
sauropod dinosaurs, which are the largest animals ever to have lived on land.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-reptile.html Words on website: Reptile
The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
45 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Birds
probably evolve from a reptile like ancestor. Most birds are egg layers, just like
reptiles, but they are warm blooded animals, that often care for their
young. Probably a reptile like
creature gradually developed, over many generations, the ability to jump,
glide, and eventually fly. This
ability, probably gradually evolved to the point where the animals were
warm-blooded, and capable of flying long distances.
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websites.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_evolution Words on website: Bird evolution From Wikipedia
http://www.pbs.org/lifeofbirds/evolution/index.html
Words on
website: Birds arrived comparatively late
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/03/4/l_034_01.html
Words
on website: Bird
Evolution
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IipUCQGRxXU Words on website: Struck with Beauty: The Evolution of Birds
http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/archie/fudd.htm Words on website: The problems with The Origin
and Evolution of Birds
46 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Monotremes may have been one of the first
mammals. This is suggested by the
fact that monotremes lay eggs. Many
of these species are extinct, and are seen in fossils. The surviving species are found in
The non-egg laying mammals probably evolve from
the monotremes. This might have
involved a progressively longer gestation period, or perhaps a greater rate of
development before birth, resulting in eggs that hatched in less and less time
in each generation, until the point was reached where the young were born
alive. This may have been a
survival advantage because eggs can be very vulnerable to predators under
certain environmental conditions.
The
first Non-egg laying mammals were probably marsupials, which have special
pouches to care for very immature young, such as kangaroos, koalas and
wombats. This probably in a sense
replaced the need for hatching eggs.
A survival advantage of the pouch is the young are carried about with
the mother. Eggs must be left
unattended when searching for food or retreating from enemies, which makes them
very vulnerable to predators.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of Mammals http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+Mammals
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/mammals/Evolution.shtml Words on website: The Evolution of Mammals
http://www.earthlife.net/mammals/evolution.html
Words on
website: Mammals
are vertebrates. They have a backbone which encloses a sheath of nerves which
leads in turn to a brain in a box or skull.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/28/science/28cnd-mammal.html
Words on
website: Study
Re-evaluates Evolution of Mammals
http://www.twow.net/ObjText/OtkCbGeRRS06D.htm
The gradual evolution of
mammals.
47 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Another Possibility For The Evolvement Of
Birds
Most of the sources I have come across suggest
that birds may have evolved from reptiles, or a reptile-like animal. However, I can think of another
possibility, which is they may have evolved from a primitive monotreme. This is suggested by the fact that
monotremes lay eggs and they are warm-blooded.
The Evolvement Of Higher Mammals, Primates
The first primate-like animal probably evolved from a squirrel-like
creature that needed its front limbs for climbing trees to escape from enemies,
and to manipulate food. Over many
thousands of generations, this probably evolved into apes and monkeys. An ape like creature eventually led to
the development of the first human like animal. This eventually led to the development
of modern humans.
For additional information, see the following
websites.
There are website links on this page that will not be
verbalized {{Pause=
Search
phrase with Google: Evolution of Higher Mammals, and Primates http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution+of+Higher+Mammals%2C+and+Primates&btnG=Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WJS-4F7HJ4V-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=453cf56edad0c197e34687db104e9e72
Words on
website: Gait mechanics of lemurid primates on terrestrial
and arboreal substrates
http://www.anthro.fsu.edu/people/faculty/falk/Handbook_V2.htm
Words on
website: To appear
in Handbook of Palaeoanthropology, Vol. 2: Primate Evolution and Human
Origins (Eds: W. Henke, H. Rothe
&
http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/origins/primates/evolution.html Words on website: PRIMATE EVOLUTION
http://www.cambridge.org/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521829427&ss=exc
Words on
website: Primates, members of the
Order Primates, are one of many living orders of mammals.
http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/early_2.htm
Words
on website: The First Primates
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfBmFx-g13Q&feature=related
Words on
website: Neanderthal
Man
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQrkJchlldA Words on website: COSMOS - Clip 5: "Human Evolution
Animation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahloeBhlcYk&feature=related
Words on
website: Human Evolution from 4,000,000 years ago
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bswCYL92m6s&feature=related Words on website: Human Life - Evolution To Self-Evolution (2of5)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnQaCxF-1IQ&feature=related
Words on
website: Evolution Ep6: The Mind's Big Bang (1/6)
http://www.resa.net/nasa/origins_life.htm
Words on
website: Origins of Life
http://www.uncommondescent.com/biology/the-history-channel-how-life-began/ Words on website: The History Channel: “How Life
Began”
http://www.greenbac.org/zoom_tree.html
Words on
website: Tree
of Life (Back to
http://www.organizationforlearning.com/Background/Biology/EvolutionaryTimeline.html
Words on
website: Evolutionary
Timeline
Search phrase with Google
Video: Evolution biology
http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Evolution+biology&hl=en&sitesearch=#
This website consists of one or more search
pages, with many links to other websites.
If you do not find what you want on this website, you can change the
search phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above
web address. After changing the
search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see a different set of
websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2601225586252902056&q=Evolution%20biology&hl=en
Words on website: Biology – “The Story of
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3893725233514939425&q=Evolution%20biology&hl=en
Words on
website:
Biology – “The Story of
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4320478340303198657&q=Evolution+biology&ei=QCxwSPS-Lo74rALli-39DQ&hl=en
Words on
website: Biology – “The Story of
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7251254062208213462&q=Evolution+biology&ei=AylwSMayGYS4rgLsoOj4DQ&hl=en Words on website: The Story of
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4441073357864216448&q=Evolution+biology&ei=wSdwSKTKNYqUrgKNpumdDw&hl=en
Words on
website: Evolution Fossils, Genes and Mousetraps 1-9
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3893725233514939425&q=Evolution+biology&ei=MyhwSP_8D4WqrgLiidm4AQ&hl=en Words on website: The Story of
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1584461957460629109&q=Evolution+biology&ei=uSxwSNKvB4OcrwK9qIylDw&hl=en
Words on
website: Human
Evolution: Tracing Our Origins with DNA
Search
phrase with Google Video: Carl Sagan on evolution http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Carl+Sagan+on+evolution&hl=en&sitesearch=#
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7880691779556591304&q=Evolution&hl=en
Words on
website: Carl Sagan's Cosmos - Evolution
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2732860618747415751&q=Carl+Sagan+on+evolution&ei=5SVwSPKdG5iErAK__6TKCg&hl=en
Words on
website: Carl Sagan's Cosmos: Evolution ( Part 1)
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7880691779556591304&q=Evolution&hl=en
Words on
website: Carl Sagan's Cosmos – Evolution
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=433274581250541893&q=Evolution&hl=en
Words on
website: Clip from Cosmos Series
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-522726029201501667&q=Evolution&ei=5R9wSKGhBo6IrQLlloyPDw&hl=en
Words on
website: Carl
Sagan on evolution 6 min - Jul 2, 2006
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7280882598524851664&q=Carl+Sagan+on+evolution&ei=NiZwSKmzL4eIrgKfoc2dDw&hl=en COSMOS - Clip 5: "Human Evolution
Animation"
Search
phrase with Google Evolution http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Evolution&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution
Words on
website: Evolution
From Wikipedia
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/ Words on website: Evolution is a co-production of the
WGBH/NOVA Science Unit and Clear Blue Sky Productions.
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/evolution.html Words on website: Explore the theory of evolution
48 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
IN THE MOST GENERAL
SENSE, WHAT IS EVOLUTION? A WIDER MEANING OF THE CONCEPT OF EVOLUTION
When we hear the word evolution most of us probably
think of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. However, in the most general sense
evolution has a wider meaning.
Evolution is a process, where a system consisting of many entities,
evolves in a series of stages, over a period of time. The entities can be plants and animals,
words comprising a language, or a set of factors, components or parts that
comprise a single entity, or a system.
Evolutionary processes contain some type of selection process that
rejects or accepts some of the entities that evolved at various stages. This may reduce or eliminate some
entities from the system. The
rejection of a an entity can be immediate, or it can happen over a period of
time, as a result of various types of changes that take place over time, such
as environmental variations. What
is fit or functional at one period of time, may not be functional at another. The selection process can be the result
of environmental conditions, human selection, or anything else that selects.
The period of time involved with
an evolutionary process can be days, weeks, years, sentries, thousands of
years, millions of years or longer.
Many systems developed in an evolutionary process, besides life, such as
languages, culture, and technology.
Some examples will clarify this concept.
Most Languages, Including English, Developed In An Evolutionary
Process
Modern English was created in a
series of stages, over a period of thousands of years. This involved the creation of many
words, some of which probably developed by accident, or from the input of other
languages. Some of these words were
eventually rejected and removed from modern English. Other words were retained, and many were
modified as a result of mispronunciations or misspelling. That is, the words
that were fittest, or most appropriate and useful for the English-speaking
culture survived. Of course, words
that were fit or functional at one period of time were not functional at
another, and such words are no longer used in commonly spoken English.
In English, as is the case in all
natural languages, new words are constantly evolving. Some of these words do not become widely
used and quickly disappear from the language. Other words become widely accepted, and
are considered standard English words.
Another example of an
evolutionary process was a series of developments in tools and technology that
started in the Stone Age with the creation of stone tools and the discovery of
fire. These basic developments
resulted in a series of further developments, which involved trial and error
and a selection process based on utility.
This resulted in progressively higher levels of technological
development, which provided the tools and resources for even more advanced
technological developments. This
eventually led to the Bronze Age, Iron Age, and the development and application
of machinery in the Industrial Revolution.
All of this is an evolutionary process, which eventually led to the
evolvement of modern technology, which continues to evolve by the same process
to progressively more advanced levels, to the present day.
A major component of the technological
evolutionary process was, and still is the progressive development of the
ability to manipulate and create very small and very large objects. When this evolutionary process started
in the Stone Age, the smallest object that could be manipulated or created was
limited by what the human eye could see and what the hands can effectively
handle. The largest objects that
could be manipulated were probably about the size and weight that one or two
men could lift.
As time progressed, with the
development of progressively more sophisticated tools and techniques a point
was reached in modern times where molecules and atoms can be manipulated and
created to varying degrees. The
ability to manipulate and create tiny objects has facilitated the evolutionary
development of modern computer technology, which originally involved electronic
components several inches in length, (vacuum tubes) and now it involves
microscopic electronic components.
The ability to manipulate and
create large objects has obviously increased very dramatically, especially
since the start of the Industrial Revolution. With the tools, that evolved one person
can lift many tons, and a team of people can build gigantic skyscrapers in two
to five years.
Cultural Evolution And Societies
Culture and their related
societies also developed in an evolutionary process that generally involved
hundreds or thousands of years.
However, the most important components of some cultures evolved
relatively recently, over the last hundred years. The evolutionary process with culture
includes the evolvement of language and technology as discussed above. Legal concepts, religion, norms, values,
mannerisms, and the philosophy and lifestyle of the members of a cultural group
also develop in an evolutionary process.
The
selection and related evolutionary process involved with cultural evolution is
very much influenced by environmental conditions, such as availability of food,
water, and various natural resources.
The nature of geographical borders enclosing a culture can also be
significant. Some borders can
easily be transverse by enemies, and some are almost inaccessible. Some borders are also easily accessible
to other cultures for trade, and a sharing of cultural concepts.
Through reasoning, trial and
error, with a focus on perceived functionality, various behaviors,
beliefs, methods, and other components, are selected or rejected by the
society, over a period of years.
The selection process involved with social and cultural development is
imperfect or even dysfunctional, and in most cultural groups and their related
society, highly dysfunctional behaviors and beliefs can be found. One of the reasons for this is selection
processes are based on perception of utility, which may not always represent
true utility. In addition, the
perception of people who have more power can have a greater influence on a
culture. For example, powerful
leaders can facilitate wars, because it may serve utility based on their
personal perceptions, and their personal emotional needs in some cases.
However, dysfunctional beliefs,
behaviors, and customs might eventually be removed from a culture, but this can
take many generations. Often,
people want to hold onto dysfunctional ways of living and doing things, because
they have been exposed to such dysfunctional concept since childhood.
It is interesting to note, that
in human societies it is sometimes difficult to distinguish what is the result
of biological evolution, and what is the result of cultural evolution. Both biological and cultural evolution
generally involves a selection process that is ultimately based on survival. This involves selecting traits and behavior
patterns that will perpetuate the people in the cultural group.
You generally will not find any
speculation or disagreement about physiologically based traits, because it is
generally accepted that they are the result of biological evolution. However, there might be some question
and disagreement about behavior patterns.
Are they the result of biological or cultural evolution?
Some individuals look at the
instinctive behavior patterns of animals, which most likely developed in a
biological evolutionary process.
Then they try to find similar behavior patterns in human beings. When they identify similar behavior patterns
in animals and humans, their assumption is that the behavior pattern in human
beings developed in a biological evolutionary process, just like it did with
non-human animals. However if these
behavior patterns are complex, they most likely evolved in a social and
cultural evolutionary process, based on utility and survival. For example, some social scientists
compare mate selection and mating behaviors in animals, with that of human
sexual behavior. These are
primarily complex behavior patterns, and in human beings, they most likely
developed in a cultural evolutionary process. This becomes obvious, when individual
cultures and individual people are examined. The sexual behavior patterns, and mate
selection criteria, is not identical with all cultures and with all human
beings. With non-human animals of
the same species, the diversity in this regard is minimal, when compared to
human beings.
Some of the very simple behavior
patterns seen in human beings probably did develop in a biological evolutionary
process. The sucking response of
babies is a good example. It is
apparently not the result of culture, because newborn babies, and other
mammals, exhibit the behavior.
Various simple movements, especially those exhibited by babies are
probably also the result of biological evolution.
Many Aspects Of Our Lives Develop In An Evolutionary Process
Our personality and many aspects
of our lives also develop in an evolutionary process. Even our level of health and physical
fitness can evolve in an evolutionary process. This involves the development of various
healthy or unhealthy habits, which evolve over an extended period of time. This involves a selection process that
takes place over many years. It
involves decision-making, on whether or not to engage in, or continue, various
healthy and unhealthy behaviors that relate to habit formation. Examples are should I smoke, should I
continue smoking, should I exercise, should I continue exercising, should I
overeat, should I drink alcohol, get drunk, etc. This type of decision-making may take
place on an unconscious level, (without the awareness of consequences or habit
formation). Nevertheless, over time
it represents a selection process that can lead to an evolutionary development
of a healthy or unhealthy body, as well as a healthy or unhealthy
lifestyle.
A process similar to the above
may also result in an evolutionary development of good or poor financial
habits, study habits, and general habits that contribute to social
functionality, and mental health.
Thus, it should be apparent from
the above, that an evolutionary process, or evolutionary development, is not
unusual. The evolutionary
development of life is just one of many different evolutionary processes.
A
NOTE ON BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION, AND THE ROLES OF SCIENCE AND RELIGION
Why are some religious people against the scientific theory of
evolution? Some of these people are
against teaching evolution in the public schools. These individuals might be confusing the
role of science and the role of religion.
The important idea to understand is both science
and religion are valid concepts, but they have very different purposes and
goals. The role of science is to
obtain data, information, and related theories that are experimentally
verifiable. Information of this
nature can be used to create all types of entities, such as a knife, a church,
an atomic bomb, a nuclear reactor, a jackhammer, a machine gun, etc.
Scientific information is not influenced by
beliefs or values, and it does not tell you what you should do, and what you
should not do. However, when
scientific information is applied to a problem or goal, it can tell you how to
do something, or how to do what you want to do. For example, with scientific information
you can create a high-quality knife.
Scientific information can also be used to determine what you can do
with the knife, with an assessment of its durability and sharpness in relation
to the hardness of various objects.
However, the scientific information does not tell you if you should or
should not create a knife in the first place, and what you should do with the
knife once you created it, such as kill someone, or cut vegetables. To determine whether you should create a
knife, and what you should, or should not, do with the knife is not the role of
science; it is the role of religion, philosophy, ethics and the law.
The idea to keep in mind is the role of religion
is the establishment of ethical standards, and related behaviors. This can involve preaching, teaching and
advocating anything that supports the ethical standards. Most religions have a supernatural or
spiritual set of beliefs that ultimately support their ethical standards. From a more scientific perspective this
can be thought of as a set of symbolic representations or symbolism that
support their ethical standards.
For example, many religions preach or imply that if you engage in evil
or destructive behavior you will eventually receive punishment in hell. This is symbolism that supports
ethical standards, and perhaps it also represents the probability of adverse
consequences resulting from evil or destructive behavior, such as revenge from
injured parties, and legal penalties.
Problems can arise when people misunderstand the
purpose of spiritual belief systems, and scientific data, theories and
concepts.
Many religions have spiritual, or from a more
scientific perspective, symbolic beliefs about how life began. These beliefs or symbolism supports
their general framework of symbolic beliefs and related ethical standards. That is beliefs that imply that life was
created by an all-powerful entity might be partly based on the concept that the
all-powerful entity can monitor your behavior, and punish you for any
misdeeds.
The framework of symbolic beliefs coupled with
preaching and organizational structure may also serve social and psychological
functions. Religious institutions
often raise money for the poor, for scientific research to conquer diseases,
and they bring people together in social interactions of various types. They may also provide psychological
mechanisms to deal with the adversities of life, such as illness, death, and
other misfortunes.
It is interesting to note that religious
institutions generally use scientific principles when they want to create a
church or temple. That is they do
not hire a preacher, they hire an architectural and construction firm that
utilizes scientific principles of engineering, and related scientific
technologies. Religious
institutions often support scientific medical treatment in hospitals. They also may provide support for
scientific research to find cures for various diseases. They may help with the distribution of
the medicines created by science to individuals in the developing countries.
The above is not provided by science. Science deals with a search for
factual data that can be experimentally verified, and religion deals with the creation
and preaching of ethical standards, coupled with various social and
psychological functions.
If you understand the very different roles and
goals of science and religion, it becomes apparent, that the concept of
science, including the biological evolutionary theory, does not conflict with
religion.
The idea to keep in mind is, religious concepts
are based on guiding ethical behavior, and they do not conflict with the
theories and principles of science.
A
NOTE ON MODERN EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
Is
Modern Evolutionary Theory The Same As Charles Darwin's Theory Of Evolution?
The basic principles of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution are
included in modern description about the evolutionary process. However, since
Charles Darwin wrote his theory in the 1700s, science has made great advances,
some of which apply to the evolution of life. This includes advancements in chemistry,
such as amino acids formed from inorganic compounds, with electric discharges
or ultraviolet light. The most
important discoveries for evolutionary science are discoveries in genetics, and
the chemicals that are involved with the genetic code DNA, and RNA. The most interesting and convincing
development in this regard is the deliberate creation of various types of
living organisms by means of gene splicing. With gene splicing techniques, cats have
been created that emit light, like a jellyfish. That is these cats glow-in-the-dark. (See http://www.theinternetjournalist.com/glow-in-the-dark-kitty/ and also http://sirens-space.blogspot.com/2008/04/glow-in-dark-cats.html). A number of types of bacteria have been genetically
modified to produce human hormones, such as insulin, and human growth
hormone.
Basically, living things have a genetic code, and
if something modifies that code, you may obtain a modified or unique organism
that never existed before. Of course,
most mutations are dysfunctional, and the organisms that results may not
survive, or reproduce.
The
important idea to remember here is science generally develops and progresses in
an evolutionary process. Charles
Darwin's theory was one of the primary concepts that started an evolutionary
process of experimentation and study that led to the modern theory of evolution
of life on planet Earth. The new
data and experimental evidence from modern science does not contradict Charles
Darwin's theory of evolution. The
new scientific evidence does greatly advance the theory, and it fills in many
gaps that Charles Darwin could not explain.
EVOLUTIONARY
PROCESSES AND RANDOM CHANCE
An important concept involved
with the evolution of life is random chance. This actually applies to all types of
evolutionary systems, to varying degrees, including the evolution of languages,
culture, and technology.
In
this section, I will first explain certain concepts that relate to randomness
or chance occurrences. This will be
followed by a discussion of chance occurrences and evolution.
The Relativity Of Randomness
And Chance Occurrences
What
is randomness, and why is it a relative concept? It means an observer cannot predict
results or occurrences with certainty.
In such a case, the observer might be able to calculate or estimate
probabilities. The relativity of
the concept of chance can be illustrated with the following examples.
Let
us assume you are working in a firm that maintains a roster of 100
employees. However, one employee is
fired each year, and replaced by another worker. You can assume your chance of being
fired over the next year is one in a hundred, or 1%. This is based on your imprecise
knowledge, which you cannot use to make a perfect prediction. On the other hand, your boss has precise
knowledge, and he may have already decided to fire you. From your relative perspective or point
of view, the chances of being fired are one in a hundred, and from the boss's
perspective, it is certainty.
In
general, when people estimate or calculate probabilities they are basing it on
their position of observation and/or their knowledge and experience. An individual with one position of
observation and/or different knowledge will most likely estimate or calculate a
different set of probabilities then another person.
Of
course, there are many situations where nobody can predict results or outcomes
with any certainty. For example,
when someone throws dice nobody can predict the results, but they can calculate
probabilities.
In
science very often what cannot be predicted at one point in time, may become
more predictable, or very predictable, with the attainment of more
knowledge. Some of the concepts and
stages of the evolution of life, that from our current perspective are the
result of random chance, might be perceived differently in the future, with
advancements in physics, chemistry, and biology.
If one unique self-replicating entity develops by
random chance, (or by any other method) it may result in very large numbers of
the entity, if the environmental conditions are favorable. This concept applies to certain types of
molecules and all living entities.
However, usually unique entities that are the result of random chance
disintegrate or die, and do not reproduce.
However, in very large environments, with many chemicals and/or living
structures many unique entities will be produced by random chance, especially
over long periods of time. Many of
these entities may be extremely unlikely occurrences, especially if the
resulting structure has replicating capabilities. Nevertheless, such structures are very
likely to occur when you are dealing with huge numbers of molecules, and/or
very large numbers of living entities.
These probabilities are greatly increased as time proceeds. In the case of evolution of life on
Earth, the number of entities involved is astronomically large, and the time
interval is about 4 billion years.
A Note On: The Stages Involved With The
Evolutionary Development Of Life
It is important to note that the
precise stages or sequences involve with the evolutionary process that led to
the development of life cannot be absolutely determined. There can be differing opinions about
the exact steps in sequences involved with the various evolutionary
stages. Thus, different sources
might present a somewhat different sequence than other sources. In this book, I present more than one
possible step for some of the sequences.
The above
raises the question can evolutionary theory be confirmed experimentally, with
the goal of determining the precise set of sequences that resulted in
life? The answer is it is possible
to set up enclosed environments with chemicals, and observe a chemical
evolutionary process that starts from inorganic compounds and devolves into
amino acids and polypeptides, which may eventually form proteins. It is also possible to set up controlled
environments that involve micro organisms and expose them to various selective
pressures, which will often result in organisms resistant to the selective pressures. (The selective pressures can be
competition from other microorganisms, antibiotics, a shortage of a nutrient,
excessive quantities of a nutrient, high quantities of oxygen, a deficiency of
or no oxygen, high or low temperatures, and many other factors.) It is also possible to carry out
experiments similar to this with higher plants, animals, and fungi. However, evolutionary steps that are
revealed with experiments of this nature will only suggest possibilities. Such experiments are likely to reveal
multiple possibilities. For
example, amino acids and polypeptides can evolve from exposing a mixture of
appropriate gases to ultraviolet light, as well as electric sparks, that
simulate lightning. Thus, these
experiments do not determine whether ultraviolet from the sun, or lightning, or
both, or some other source of energy, was the form of energy that ultimately
started the evolutionary process of life.
Nevertheless, laboratory
experiments involving the possible evolutionary stages of development can
provide very useful and interesting possibilities of how life began on our
planet.
Before life could develop on planet Earth, the chemicals
needed for life had to evolve. This
involved many exothermic and endothermic reactions. In this section, I will define and
explain some of the principles that relate to exothermic and endothermic
reactions. This discussion is
primarily focused on chemistry, which will be helpful in understanding the
early stages of evolution of life.
Note On The Terminology: Exothermic Reactions, And Endothermic
Reactions
In the following discussion exothermic
reactions refer to chemical reactions that release energy. In this discussion endothermic
reactions refers to chemical reactions that require an input of
energy for the reaction to take place.
Under certain conditions, exothermic
reactions require a momentary input of some energy to initiate the reaction,
such as a tiny flame from a match to light a stove or burn garbage. However, with an endothermic reaction the input of energy must be
continuous for the reaction to continue. That is, when the input of energy stops
the endothermic reaction will also stop.
A Note* On Exothermic Reactions And The
Evolvement Of The Basic Inorganic Chemicals Needed For Life
One of the main inhibiting factors of exothermic
reactions is the energy state of the environment, especially in terms of
temperature. If the temperature is
excessively high, these reactions generally will not take place. For example, hydrogen and oxygen will
not react to form water, if the temperature is very high, such as 10,000°
centigrade. The reason for this is
the oxygen and hydrogen atoms have too much energy to form water. At 10,000° C, water will decompose
into hydrogen and oxygen, because the molecular bonds are broken by the high
temperature. However, if the
temperature is lowered, as happened in the early period of our solar system and
earth, water will form, initially in the form of steam, and as the temperature
lowers further, liquid water will form.
The same principle applies to the exothermic reactions that resulted in
the formation of other compounds needed for life, such as sodium chloride, and
potassium chloride.
Low temperatures can also inhibit, or prevent
exothermic reactions from taking place.
For example, hydrogen and oxygen will not react to form water, if the
temperature is low enough to freeze the hydrogen and oxygen to a
solid-state. However, if there is a
small flame it can start the reaction, by converting a small quantity of the
solids to hot gases, which will react to produce heat. The reaction will continue if this heat
is sufficient to convert the remaining solids into gases that are hot enough to
react.
A Note On: Different Types Of
Endothermic Reactions Require Different Types Of Energy
Endothermic
reactions generally require a specific type of energy. For example, if you expose a mixture of water,
methane, ammonia, hydrogen, to heat under ordinary
atmospheric conditions, you will not obtain amino acids. The same is true if you expose the
mixture of gases to visible light or infrared, both of which are forms of
energy. To obtain amino acids from
these mixtures of gases it is necessary to use the right type of energy, which
is pulsating electric discharges (electrics sparks) that simulate
lightning. (See The Miller-Urey experiment at http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/miller_urey_experiment.html.)
Another
example of an endothermic reaction is photosynthesis, which requires the input
of visible light, such as from the sun.
You cannot use other forms of energy, such as heat or infrared for
photosynthesis.
The
idea to keep in mind is each type of endothermic reaction requires a specific
type of energy. However, there are
some cases where more than one possible type of energy can be used.
A Note On Energy Density, And
Exothermic Reactions
Another
very important concept in regards to exothermic reactions
is energy density. Different types
of endothermic reactions, require different energy densities. For example, if you continuously expose
a mixture of water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen to
very intense electric sparks, of 100,000 Watts, you will not get a mixture of
amino acids, because the energy density would be too great. Instead of amino acids, you would get a
mixture of hot gases. To obtain
amino acids with these gases, you would have to have an energy density low
enough to permit the chemical bonds to form. Such an energy density would not raise
the temperature to the point where amino acids decompose.
*(See
The Miller-Urey experiment at http://www.juliantrubin.com/bigten/miller_urey_experiment.html.)
The first step in the evolutionary process
involved the formation of simple chemicals, from fundamental elements, such as
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sodium, potassium, chlorine, sulfur,
phosphorus, etc. Many of the
reactions that formed the simple chemical compounds took place when the earth
first evolved from hot gases and molten material. As this material cooled, spontaneous
reactions, or exothermic reactions took place that formed various chemicals,
such as, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, and water, and many other simple
compounds needed for life. These
reactions are exothermic. (They
release energy.) There is no mystery
involved with these reactions, because they can be easily carried out in
the laboratory. For example,
chlorine gas will react with sodium to form sodium chloride, and hydrogen will
react with oxygen, to form water, in the laboratory, or anywhere else where the
environmental conditions are suitable.
In
addition to the simple compounds discussed above, complex chemical reactions
took place in the evolutionary process that led to life. These More complex reactions required an
input of energy. These are
endothermic reactions. (See the
definitions above, in the notes on exothermic and endothermic reactions.). The amino acids, presumably, reacted to
form polypeptides, and eventually proteins.
The
question arises, where did the energy come from for the endothermic reactions
mentioned above? The most likely
sources of energy that created the amino acids, is ultraviolet from the sun,
electrical pulses from lightning, and possibly radiation from rocks
There Are Many Other Ways That
The Organic Chemicals Needed For Life Could Have Been Created
Keep
in mind that the above, as well as most of the details of evolutionary theory,
is speculation or educated guesses.
Amino acids, polypeptides, proteins, and the other organic chemicals needed
for life could have evolved many other ways. For example, the rocks, soil, clay,
and/or various minerals in the natural environment, could have acted as
catalysts in various ways to create the chemicals needed for life.
The Accumulation Of Organic Chemicals
In the early environment that existed on earth,
before life began, amino acids, polypeptides, proteins, and other organic
chemicals could not decay, because the decaying process involves live
microorganisms. These chemicals
could change to more complex chemicals, or they can decompose because of the
energy state of the environment, but this process takes place very slowly. Thus, it is likely that various types of
amino acids, polypeptides, and proteins, and other organic compounds
accumulated in streams, rivers, and oceans.
Most likely, many other chemicals besides amino
acids and proteins were created in the pre-life period of our planet. That is in a huge environment, with a
huge amount of inorganic chemicals, and many different types of energy, and a
huge variety of potential catalysts, a large number of chemical reactions will
most likely take place. This may
have formed many of the other organic chemicals needed for life. For example, fats, carbohydrates, and
even a simple form of DNA may have been created.
THE SECOND STAGE OF EVOLUTIONARY
DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE: THE EVOLVEMENT OF PROKARYOTES
A Note On: The Evolvement Of
The First Living Entities, From Chemicals
Much of the following discussion
is speculation, because it deals with the formation of bacteria from
chemicals. To date, no one has
created bacteria from chemicals in the laboratory. Possibly, sometime in the future, a set
of chemical sequences will be worked out that result in the development of a
simple bacterium.
However,
bacteria are more than complex molecules, or structures composed of
molecules. In spite of the fact
that bacteria are the simplest life forms, they are quite complex. They take in substances from their environment,
consume energy, grow and reproduce.
The
Development Of The First Living Entity Might Have Been The Result Of Random
Chance
The chemical sequences
that led to the evolvement of the first bacteria, and probably also the first
DNA like structures, may have been partly the result of random chance. (However, certain varieties of Archaea
that do not need organic compounds from the environment might have evolved
before bacteria.)
A mixture of chemicals, exposed to energy of
varying types, will generally respond in predictable ways, at least in terms of
a mass of billions of molecules.
However, individual molecules can interact in unusual ways as a result
of random chance. Random chance
occurrences increase as the number of entities increases. If a molecular-based random chance
interaction results in a reaction that produces one molecule, or structure,
that has self replicating properties, it might duplicate to billions in a
relatively short period of time.
One or more reactions of this type may have led to the formation of the
first living entities on our planet.
Keep in mind that one bacterium can grow and reproduce billions of
bacteria in a very short period of time.
The Evolvement Of Nucleic Acid
Over
time, the streams, lakes, rivers and oceans probably contained a rich mixture
of the chemicals needed to form life, such as amino acids, polypeptides,
lipoids, sugars, and many other compounds.
This mixture, probably eventually formed some relatively large molecules
such as nucleic acids.
DNA,
may have evolved before there were any true life forms on our planet. The first DNA was probably in a very
primitive and simple form. Under
the right conditions, DNA segments can replicate to form many similar
segments. This may have happened in
certain locations on our planet, before the first living entities
developed.
Possibly a very large number of variations of
simple DNA like molecules formed, some of which formed very large molecular
structures. Most of these nucleic
acid structures probably had no significance as far as the development of life
is concerned. However, because of
the huge number of such structures, one or more, may have evolved by random
chance to a molecular structure that bond to specific amino acids. This may have formed a membrane like
enclosure over the DNA. This might
have been more or less a molecular structure consisting of amino acids bound to
the DNA. The amino acids that were
molecularly bound to the DNA, may have formed a protein structure, that
surrounded the DNA. This molecular
structure is similar to a virus, but it cannot be classified as a virus,
because viruses by definition infect living cells, and at this point in time
there was no life. However, that
fact that there are viruses that have this type of molecular structure, is
proof that the structure described above is possible, at least from the
perspective of chemistry. In a few
of these structures, the membrane like coating over the DNA may have been
modified by random chance in such a way that it chemically bound to lipoids in
the surrounding environment, forming a membrane enclosure that is more or less
similar to the cell membranes of bacteria.
Over time, a huge number of these structures may have formed, most of
which probably had no significance as far as the development of life is
concerned. However, one or more of
these structures may have evolved by random chance in such a way that it
continuously absorbed amino acids, lipoids, and other chemicals from the
environment, which led to an increase in mass and size. This process can involve molecular
and/or electrostatic attractions of the amino acids, lipoids, and other
chemicals that cause the growth of the structure. The increase in size of these membrane
covered DNA structures, ultimately cause them to split into two segments. The two resulting structures, probably
also continued to absorb amino acids and other chemicals from the environment,
which resulted in repeated divisions.
This may have resulted in a huge number of these structures. These structures probably evolved into
more complex forms over time, which essentially were simple bacteria
(eukaryotes).
The First Bacteria That Evolved And Their
Food
The first bacteria that evolved probably had a
huge amount of food in their environment, as a result of the amino acids,
polypeptides, and proteins, and other organic compounds that accumulated in the
streams, rivers, and oceans. As a
result of the huge amount of food, the bacteria increased to huge
quantities. This ultimately led to
the reduction and eventually the elimination of the food supply. As a result, prokaryotes with the
ability to capture energy from the sun evolved. This process involves photosynthesis,
and it can be seen in blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) to the present day.
The blue-green algae evolved into other species
of photosynthetic bacteria. Some of
the variations of cyanobacteria might have evolved into higher forms of algae,
all of which eventually increase the quantity of oxygen in the atmosphere.
In addition to the above, some bacteria develop
that can live off inorganic compounds released from the earth's crust. This includes hydrogen sulfide. The energy is produced by the reaction
of hydrogen sulfide with other compounds.
There are also bacteria that live off sulfur. These bacteria do not live off
pre-existing amino acids, proteins, or carbohydrates. They formed their own amino acids and
protein structures from the basic compounds in their environment.
Did The Evolvement Of One Living Cell Produce
All Living Things On Earth?
Many people believe that all life on our planet
was ultimately developed from a single cell that reproduced by binary fission,
and the resulting cells eventually mutated into progressively higher forms of
life. There are some good arguments
for this theory. For example, all
cells contain DNA, and they have many chemical mechanisms in common. However,
there are other possibilities.
The fact that there are many similarities between
cells of different types can be the result of physics, chemistry, and similar
environmental conditions, and not a single parent cell forming all life. The principle here is similar structures
are often produced in nature as a result of the laws of chemistry and physics
and environmental conditions. For
example, there are a huge number of molecules, independent of life forms, on
our planet, some of which have very complex structures. These complex structures form under
natural conditions. These chemicals
can be produced in the laboratory.
Even complex amino acids, polypeptides and proteins can be form in the
laboratory. These reactions will
generally produce the same molecules, with the same structure, any place that
has suitable environmental conditions, and the needed basic chemicals.
Of course, even the simplest bacteria is far
more complex than just about any molecule.
However, this does not imply that similar bacterial structures could not
develop in different locations on our planet, independent of each other. It is even quite possible that life
developed on our planet from the inter-action of many bacteria like structures
that were different structurally, and even chemically. However, some of these primitive life
forms may have interacted physically to ultimately form one or more cells, that
reproduced, and mutated over time to form most or all living things on
earth. Keep in mind that all of
this is speculation.
THE
THIRD STAGE IN THE EVOLUTION OF LIFE EVOLVEMENT OF EUKARYOTE
A Note On The Possibilities Of How Eukaryote
Evolved
Nobody knows for certain exactly how eukaryotes
evolved, but they may have evolved from prokaryotes. However, some might argue that because
of the great differences between the structure and reproductive mechanism
between eukaryote and prokaryotes that they evolved separately. Prokaryotes have a relatively simple
replicating mechanism consisting of DNA that is not bound in an organelle. Eukaryote have DNA, RNA, and tRNA, and a
nucleus, and various organelles. However, in the following paragraphs I am
going to discuss the possible sequence of how Eukaryote might have evolved from
prokaryotes.
Eukaryotes
And One Possibility Of How They May Have Evolved
Eukaryotes
might have evolved as a result of smaller prokaryotes incorporating themselves
into the cytoplasm of larger prokaryotes.
From this perspective, the smaller prokaryotes eventually evolved into
the organelles found in eukaryotes.
The best evidence for this possibility is seen with certain organelles
that have their own DNA, and they reproduce inside the eukaryotes, such as
mitochondria, and chloroplasts.
This more or less resembles a symbiotic relationship. However, the organelles are of course
not true independent organisms, as they now exist in eukaryotic cells, and they
cannot live and reproduce outside of the cells in the natural environment.
All of the
organelles in eukaryotes do not have their own DNA. Organelles that do not have their own
DNA, probably evolved inside the cell as a result of mutations in the genetic
code, contained in the DNA in the nucleus.
Probably
the first eukaryotes were very simple single celled organisms. These simple cells may have evolved into
various types of simple single celled algae, protozoa, and fungi.
A NOTE ON VIRUSES AND EVOLUTION
What Are Viruses, Are They
Living Or Nonliving Entities
Viruses are not classified as
living entities by most sources. However, they are the result of evolution, and
they do share some of the properties of living things. That is viruses contain nucleic acid,
and when they infect cells they reproduce, and also usually destroy the
cell. In this regard, they are
similar to infectious bacteria.
However,
viruses cannot reproduce outside of the cell. Viruses are in a certain sense very
large molecules, and some viruses have been crystallized, in a way that is
similar to a chemical. Viruses
often consist of a DNA or RNA segment, which may or may not have a protein
cover molecularly bound to it. This
description actually does fit the definition of a molecule, quite closely.
The
first viruses may have evolved from DNA, or RNA segments. These nucleic acids segments may have
evolved from a chemical evolutionary process, and/or from the nucleic acid in
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Generally,
viruses take control of the nucleic acid mechanisms in the nucleus, and they
use the cell as an enclosure to reproduce in. To do this, a virus must have a DNA or
RNA configuration, or genetic code, that is appropriate for the cells that they
infect. Because of this, some
viruses can infect certain cells, or one species of organism, or a few species,
and they might be totally harmless to other living entities. In a sense, a virus must have a genetic
code that is in sync with the genetic code of the cells they infect. This might suggest that some viruses may
have evolved from mutations of the DNA or RNA of the species of cells they
infect.
New Strains Of Viruses And
Their Evolvement
New
viruses appear to be evolving on an ongoing basis, fairly rapidly. It is clear that most of these viruses
evolve from other viruses. This
raises a question: are there any viruses in modern times that evolved
from entities other than viruses, such as the DNA or RNA from animals. This is possible, but I know of no
sources that confirmed this experimentally.
Viruses
might have had a major role in the evolutionary process of prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells, including the higher fungi, plants and animals. Viruses have the ability to deliver
genetic material into a cell. Of course, this genetic material is
usually destructive to the cell.
Perhaps in certain cases, the genetic code delivered by viruses in the
natural environment does not destroy the cell, and it may result in a mutation
that may or may not be viable.
The
above theory is suggested by experiments and genetic engineering methods that
use viruses to create mutations.
This involves modifying the genetic code of a virus, in such a way that
it delivers specific genetic information into a cell. This can involve obtaining precise
genetic segments from one type of cell, and delivering it to another type of
cell. Much of this is still in the
experimental stages.
Of
course, the above does not prove that viruses can cause viable mutations in the
natural environment, but it certainly suggests the possibility.
DOES
EVOLUTION CONTINUED TO THE PRESENT DAY?
Does Evolution Of Plants And Animals
Continue To The Present Day?
Question: does evolution continued to the present day, or has it
stopped. The answer is yes it
continues. Animals are continuously
faced with challenges from their environment, and only those that are
adequately fit for the environmental conditions, survive and reproduce. Many of the environmental challenges
that animals face in modern times, is the result of industrialization. This results in the reduction of
wilderness areas, and environmental pollution. These conditions have eliminated some
species, and probably will continue to eliminate other species. However, this may provide the
opportunity for other species to evolve, that can function successfully in the
environment created by industrialization.
For example, rats, cockroaches, and pigeons appear to do very well in
the polluted industrialized environment created by humans.
Many of us might prefer to think that human beings are the culmination
of evolution, and no other life form can be as smart and powerful as
humans. Many of us believe that the
struggle for survival does not exist in modern society. They may believe that the natural
selection process has stopped.
However, I am going to present a different perspective. It is true that many of the survival
challenges found in the natural environment, the wilderness, do not apply to
life in the developed nations.
However, society places a significant survival challenge on its
members. Some people are
successful, reach high levels of social status, and are wealthy. They probably have a survival advantage,
and their offspring probably have a significant survival advantages well. People that are less financially
successful, or poor, but have good family values, and raised many children,
also may have some evolutionary advantage.
Our society favors certain characteristics that
may also result in evolutionary change.
For example, people that are intelligent, attractive, tall, strong, and
are not excessively temperamental, probably have a survival advantage from an
evolutionary perspective, as a result of the selective pressures of modern
society.
49 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
PART SIX: HEALTH STRATEGIES AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE
Much of the material in this e-book is presented from a theoretical or
academic perspective. However, I
wrote this part of the book (part six) in
a very practical way, with a focus on general health strategies. However, Chapter 16 is focused on a
simplified perspective on the physiology of the human body, with a focus on
general insight. The remaining
chapters are all focused on practical strategies to increase health, happiness
and the quality of life.
The idea is
to read this part of the book with the goal of determining what changes,
actions, and techniques you can utilize to make improvements in your life. Not everything in this part of the book
may be useful for you. However, I
am presenting this material with the goal of encouraging others to start their
own search for information, and to engage in the trial and error process to
determine how to improve their health, happiness and their quality of
life. Each of the following
chapters will help you do this, with the information it contains, and the large
number of links to many websites, for additional information.
Chapter 16 A Simplified Examination Of Human Physiology, To Gain Insight For Health
The goal
of this chapter is to provide basic insight into the human body. This will be helpful in understanding
how to keep healthy, and how to deal with health problems. If you want information that is more
detailed, website links are provided throughout this chapter.
The Human Body As An Electrochemical
Machine
From the simplest perspective what is the human body? The human body is an electrochemical
machine, with a skeleton, many internal organs, and an outer covering of flesh
and skin, all of which are composed of cells. It contains an electrochemical computing
device, the central nervous system, (brain and spinal cord), coupled with
electrochemical sensing devices, the eyes, ears, sense of touch, pain, taste,
and olfactory receptors. It has
electrochemical motor like devices, the muscles, attached to sophisticated
limbs for locomotion and the manipulation of objects. The limbs have electrochemical sensing
devices that provide data about their location in three-dimensional space. The sensing devices transmit the data
from the environment, and the interior of the body, to the central nervous
system by way of electrical pulses.
The electrical pulses are electrochemical and they travel through wire
like structures called nerves.
Certain electrochemical pulses initiate muscular
contractions, and they have their origin from the brain and in some cases the
spinal cord. These muscle
contractions are needed for movement, to maintain balance, to pass food through
the digestive tract, to maintain breathing and the beating heart. These electrical impulses are signals,
and they do not represent the source of energy for muscular contractions.
The energy for the muscular contractions, the
brain, and everything else in the human body has its origin in the food that is
consumed, and the oxygen that is inhaled from the air. This involves chemical reactions that
take place ultimately at a cellular and sub-cellular level in the cytoplasm and
mostly in the mitochondria. This
involves complex chemical sequences called the citric acid cycle. With this chemical sequence, the energy
is stored by converting ADP to ATP in an endothermic reaction. The resulting ATP stores a usable form
of energy. When this energy is
released in an exothermic reaction, the result is ADP plus energy, which is
consumed by the body cells. ADP can
be reused by storing more energy in it, which will result in ATP.
The above process involving ATP, ADP, and energy,
is not unique to the human body. It
is seen in all types of living organisms, including bacteria.
Thus, energy production and consumption in the
human body takes place at the cellular, subcellular and molecular level.
However, this applies to just about all of the
processes that take place in the human body. The entire body, including all its
organs are composed of cells. These
cells generally work together in various units (or groups of cells) that form
the body organs. For example, when
we want to move our arm, a large number of nerve cells are activated, which
activate a number of muscle cells which contract to move the arm. When we look at an object, a large
number of cells are activated in the retina, which activates a number of nerve
fibers that comprise the optic nerve.
All of the above does not just apply to the human
body. It actually applies to living
things in general. Living things,
including humans, cats, dogs, monkeys, guerrillas, lions, green plants, fungus,
protozoa, and bacteria all function from a cellular, subcellular and molecular
level. These entities are machines,
but they differ from machines invented by humans in this regard. For example, the gasoline engine and electric
motors have large mechanical parts that convert chemical energy, or
electromagnetic forces, into movement.
The parts involved with the energy of living things are microscopic. To
see the details of the main energy production device, the mitochondria,
requires an electron microscope.
If you want more information, see the following
websites
Search phrase with Google: The human body as a machine http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+human+body+as+a+machine&btnG=Google+Search This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://library.thinkquest.org/28807/data/home.htm Words on website: People sometimes call the human body a machine-the most
wonderful one ever built.
http://www.msnucleus.org/membership/html/k-6/as/physics/1/asp1_6a.html Words
on website: Applied
Science - Physics (1B) Post Lab
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Description_of_the_Human_Body
Words on website: The Description of the Human Body From Wikipedia,
50 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
HOW DOES THE HUMAN BODY WORK? A SIMPLIFIED SUMMARY
Starting
With Energy Production
Many processes take place simultaneously in the human body to maintain
life. This makes it difficult to
delineate a starting point, when describing how the body functions. However, a good place to start a
description is with energy production.
The first sequence in this regard involves inhaling air, which contains
the oxygen needed for energy production.
When air is inhaled, the oxygen eventually enters the lungs, where it
reacts with the hemoglobin in the blood.
The oxygenated blood is circulated throughout the body in a series of increasingly
smaller tubes. That is, the larger
blood vessels, called arteries transfer the blood to progressively smaller
blood vessels. This continues,
until the blood reaches very tiny blood vessels called capillaries. The capillaries transmit the blood to
individual cells. The cells take up
the oxygen, and the blood absorbs carbon dioxide, which eventually goes to the
veins, and eventually it is routed to the lungs so the carbon dioxide can be
excreted. When this happens, the
cycle is repeated, and the hemoglobin of the blood takes up oxygen once again.
If you have
read the previous paragraphs in this chapter, the answer to the above question
is obvious. The blood and its circulatory
system is a form of transport, for the materials needed by the organs and
cells. It transports oxygen,
electrolytes, vitamins, hormones, throughout the body. It also transports waste materials from
organs and cells to be excreted, such as carbon dioxide, and urea. The movement of the blood is the result
of the action of the heart, which pumps the blood through the circulatory
system.
For more
information, see the following websites.
Websites
On The Circulatory System, Blood, Lungs And Heart
Search phrase with Google: “Circulatory System” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CCirculatory+System%E2%80%9D
This website consists of one or more search
pages, with many links to other websites.
If you do not find what you want on this website, you can change the
search phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above
web address. After changing the
search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see a different set of
websites.
http://library.thinkquest.org/5777/cir1.htm Words
on website: Circulatory
System How the Blood Gets Around the Body
http://www.globalclassroom.org/hemo.html Words
on website: The
Circulatory System
Search phrase with Google: Heart http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Heart&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.healthcentral.com/heart-disease/ Words on website: Latest Heart
Disease News
http://www.howstuffworks.com/heart.htm# Words on website: How Your Heart Works
Search phrase with Google: Blood http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Blood&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://bloodjournal.hematologylibrary.org/ Words
on website: Blood
http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/blood.html Words
on website: Blood and What It Does Two types of blood vessels
carry blood throughout our bodies: The arteries carry oxygenated blood (blood
that has received oxygen from the lungs) from the heart to the rest of the
body. The blood then travels through the veins back to the heart and lungs,
where it receives more oxygen.
http://www.biology.arizona.edu/Human_Bio/problem_sets/blood_types/Intro.html
Words on website: Blood Types Tutorial
Search phrase with Google: Lungs http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Lungs
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_lung Words on website: Human lung From
Wikipedia
http://www.lungusa.org/site/c.dvLUK9O0E/b.22551/ Words
on website: In mechanical terms, our lungs can be described as the site of
gas exchange
Internet
Videos On The Circulatory System, And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google videos Circulatory system
http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&q=Circulatory+OR+System,OR+Lungs&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#q=Circulatory%20system&hl=en&sitesearch
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on website: Circulatory system
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1114151788329793101&q=Circulatory+system&ei=3nVzSJL_G6iSrAK66N3hBQ&hl=en
Words on website: beating Human heart
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3ZDJgFDdk0
Words on website: Circulatory system
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6561056374612304189&q=Circulatory%20system&hl=en
Words on website: How
the Body Works : Inside the Heart
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6561056374612304189&q=Circulatory%20system&hl=en
Words on website: The
Heart Mitral Valve
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6561056374612304189&q=Circulatory%20system&hl=en
Words on website: MitraClip
3D Animation
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6561056374612304189&q=Circulatory%20system&hl=en
Words on website: Rhumatic Mitral Valve Repair
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2789610763984762712&q=Circulatory+system&ei=7HxzSLdKipavAoGS7dwP&hl=en Words
on website: How the Body Works : The Respiratory System
51 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Digestion And Related Concepts
The blood also transports chemicals that are
oxidized to produce energy, as well as the chemicals needed for growth and
maintenance of the cells. However,
the origin of these chemicals starts in the mouth when a person eats food. The first step in this process generally
involves chewing or drinking food substances. The food is eventually broken down into
various chemicals, such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol. The chemical breakdown process starts in
the mouth for starches, where an enzyme in the saliva starts to break it down
into glucose. This process
continues in the stomach. The
proteins and fats are broken down in the digestive tract starting in the
stomach with hydrochloric acid, and a number of ensigns, such as pepsin.
After food is partially broken down into
chemicals, it leaves the stomach and enters the small intestine, where some
digestion continues. When the food
is adequately broken down into simpler chemicals, it is absorbed from the small
intestine and it enters the bloodstream, with the ultimate destination of
entering the capillaries that provide oxygen and nourishment to the cells.
Not every chemical compound found in food can be
digested. For example, human beings
cannot digest cellulose into simpler compounds that can be used by the body for
energy. Material that cannot be
digested, and cannot pass into the bloodstream, passes from the stomach into
the small intestines, and then into the large intestines, and ultimately it is
excreted in the form of feces.
There are many compounds found in food that do not
need to be digested to be used by the body. Some examples are water, sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, and many other minerals. Vitamins are not digested either. They pass through the digestive tract
into the bloodstream.
For more information, consult the following websites
and Internet videos.
Websites
On Digestion And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: Digestion http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Digestion&btnG=Search
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http://digestive.niddk.nih.gov/ddiseases/pubs/yrdd/ Words
on website: Your Digestive System and
How It Works
http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/hp.asp Words
on website: MedicineNet
http://kitses.com/animation/swfs/digestion.swf Words on website: How does your body digests different foods
http://health.discovery.com/centers/digestive/digestion.html Words
on website: Healthy Digestion
Internet
Videos On Digestion, And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google videos: Digestion http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&q=Digestion&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#q=Digestion&hl=en&sitesearch=
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http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5573596614753892907&q=Digestion&ei=NJZzSMCnLISaqQKok6ijCg&hl=en Words
on website: Digestion begins in the
mouth
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5573596614753892907&q=Digestion&ei=NJZzSMCnLISaqQKok6ijCg&hl=en Words
on website: How the Body Works : The
Digestive System
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5573596614753892907&q=Digestion&ei=NJZzSMCnLISaqQKok6ijCg&hl=en Words
on website: The Digestive
System...And You!
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5573596614753892907&q=Digestion&ei=NJZzSMCnLISaqQKok6ijCg&hl=en Words
on website: High Resolution Video
Endoscopy
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5573596614753892907&q=Digestion&ei=NJZzSMCnLISaqQKok6ijCg&hl=en Words
on website: PreOp® Patient
Education Minimal: GI Endoscopy Upper GI
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=9077000405735080658&q=Digestion&ei=gZhzSNTZGIr2rQLWm_2UBg&hl=en Words
on website: Digestion
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5996958739727733628&q=Digestion&hl=en Words
on website: Digestion Video
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5183003949906467517&q=Digestion&ei=RJlzSLvcDpDuqwLd2YWgDw&hl=en Words
on website: How To Avoid bad digestion
and overeating
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7205688951887033939&q=Digestion&ei=jZlzSIuNBaXoqAKR-aDvDQ&hl=en Words
on website: Digestion and Constipation
52 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Waste Products And The
Kidneys
The kidneys remove waste products from the
blood. This includes chemicals that
other result of protein breakdown, urea, and excess water, excess electrolytes,
and excess water-soluble vitamins.
The waste products that the kidneys filter out of the blood, ultimately
ends up in the bladder, in the form of urine.
For detailed information on the kidneys see the
following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Kidneys http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Kidneys&btnG=Google+Search This website consists of one or more search
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phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above web
address. After changing the search
phrase, press the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://apps.uwhealth.org/health/adam/hie/2/8819.htm
Words on website: Health Information Kidneys
http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/yourkidneys/
Your Kidneys and How They Work
http://www.mamashealth.com/organs/kidney.asp Words
on website: In humans, the kidneys are two small organs located near the
vertebral column at the small of the back. The left kidney lies a little higher
than the right kidney. They are bean-shaped, about 4 in. (10 cm) long and about
21/2 in. (6.4 cm) wide.
http://www.kidney.org/kidneydisease/ Words on website: Kidney Disease What
is Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)?
http://www.innerbody.com/image/card08.html Words on website: Kidney Blood
Filtering
Internet Videos On The
Kidneys
Search phrase with Google video: Kidneys http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&q=Digestion&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#q=Kidneys&hl=en&sitesearch=
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http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2913552515587883526&q=Kidneys&ei=VZ5zSMXpNIqWrwKBku3cDw&hl=en Words
on website: know
your kidneys
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3003030378903752502&q=Kidneys&ei=159zSPzAKJWgqgLSiIjYDg&hl=en Words
on website: Computer display of CGI model of spine, hip bones +
kidneys on compute...
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7262138815199207688&q=Kidneys&hl=en
Words on website: extreme close up
computer display of CGI model of spine, hip bones + k...
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5208982381473600116&q=Kidneys&hl=en
Words on website: The Urinary System
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-464935053152991318&q=Kidneys&ei=CZxzSLPJCJWgqgLSiIjYDg&hl=en
Words on website: A Delicate Balance: Your
Kidneys and Hyperphosphatemia
Search phrase with Google video: The Liver http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Liver&hl=en&sitesearch=#q=Liver&hl=en&sitesearch This website consists of one or more search
pages, with many links to other websites.
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websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4490116012177468348&q=Liver&ei=N6NzSPH0MYWyrgKcjf3_Bg&hl=en Words
on website: Educational Forum on
Liver Disease Part 2
Search phrase with Google: The human skeleton http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+human+skeleton&btnG=Google+Search
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http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=The+human+skeleton&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&resnum=1&ct=title Words
on website: Diagram of the human skeleton
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/skeleton/Skelprintout.shtml Words
on website: Human
Skeleton
http://www.eskeletons.org/taxaSelect.cfm Words
on website: The Human Skeleton Follow the two simple steps below to select the
bone in the human body that you want to view in detail. Once you have selected
a bone to view, you will be able to investigate various aspects of the bone as
well as compare the human bone's features to those of other primates.
http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/xrays/ Words
on website: The Living Skeleton: a Tour of Human Bones
Search phrase with Google: Bone metabolism http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Bone+metabolism
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http://sprojects.mmi.mcgill.ca/bonephysio/ Words
on website: Bone Metabolism
http://www.onderzoekinformatie.nl/en/oi/nod/onderzoek/OND1281080/ Words
on website: Program: Regulation of calcium and bone
metabolism
Search phrase with Google: Eyes http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Eyes&btnG=Search
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http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/eyesandvision.html Words
on website: Eyes and Vision
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/eyes/EY99999 Words
on website: Learn how your eye functions, what can go wrong and measures you
can take to protect or treat your eyes and improve your vision.
http://www.howstuffworks.com/eye.htm Words
on website: How Vision Works
Search phrase with Google: Ears http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Ears
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ear
Words on website: Ears From Wikipedia
http://www.entnet.org/HealthInformation/earsAltitude.cfm
Words
on website: How
Does Air Pressure Affect The Ear?
Search phrase with Google video: The endocrine system http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Endocrine+system This website consists of one or more search
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http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=Endocrine+system&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&resnum=1&ct=title Words
on website: Images
http://kidshealth.org/parent/general/body_basics/endocrine.html Words
on website: Although we rarely think about them, the glands of the endocrine
system and the hormones they release influence almost every cell, organ, and
function of our bodies.
http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio105/endocrin.htm Words
on website: Endocrine System
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/endocrinesystem.html Words
on website: Endocrine
System
Search phrase with Google: the Central nervous system http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Central+nervous+system This website consists of one or more search
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http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&q=Central+nervous+system&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=X&oi=image_result_group&resnum=1&ct=title Words
on website: Images
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CNS.html Words
on website: The Human Central
Nervous System
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/8679.htm Words
on website: Medical Encyclopedia Central nervous system
and peripheral nervous system
http://www.purchon.com/biology/central.htm Words
on website: The Central Nervous System consists of the
Brain and Spinal Cord. It contains millions of neurones (nerve cells). If you
slice through some fresh brain or spinal cord you will find some areas appear
grey whilst other ares appear rather white.
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookNERV.html Words
on website: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Websites On More
Advanced Concepts Of Physiology And Anatomy
There are many exceptionally good websites on anatomy and
physiology. This will become apparent
when you examine the following list of websites.
There are
website links on this page that will not be verbalized {{Pause=
Search phrase with Google: Physiology
OR Anatomy http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&as_q=&as_epq=&as_oq=Physiology+Anatomy&as_eq=&num=10&lr=&as_filetype=&ft=i&as_sitesearch=&as_qdr=all&as_rights=&as_occt=any&cr=&as_nlo=&as_nhi=&safe=images
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.bartleby.com/107/ Words
on website: Anatomy of the Human Body Henry Gray
http://home.comcast.net/~wnor/homepage.htm
Words on website: These Web Pages are dedicated to
all the students with whom I had the good fortune of teaching at
http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/HISTHTML/HISTO.html Words
on website: Anatomy-Histology
Tutorials
http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html Words
on website: Human Anatomy Online
http://biology.about.com/od/humananatomybiology/Human_Anatomy_Biology.htm Words
on website: Human Anatomy & Biology
http://www.gwc.maricopa.edu/class/bio201/ Words
on website: Anatomy & Physiology HomePage
http://academic.pgcc.edu/~aimholtz/AandP/AandPLinks/ANPlinks.html
Words on website: Anatomy and Physiology Links
http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/ap1int.htm Words
on website: Anatomy & Physiology I Animations Movies & Interactive
Tutorial Links
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/digestion/basics/index.html Words
on website: Fundamental Physiology and Anatomy of the Digestive System
http://www.csun.edu/science/biology/anatomy/anatomy.html Words
on website: Anatomy and Physiology
http://www.uh.edu/sibs/tutorial/ap1.htm#chemistry Words
on website: Anatomy & Physiology I
Tutoring Links
http://www.unomaha.edu/hpa/index.html Words on website: HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
AND ANATOMY
http://www.getbodysmart.com/ Words
on website: An Online Examination of
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Visually Learn About the Human Body Using Our Interactive
"Flash" Animations
http://www.unomaha.edu/hpa/ Words
on website: Human
Physiology and Anatomy at the
http://www.medtropolis.com/VBody.asp Words
on website: The Virtual Body
http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/ap1int.htm Words
on website: Anatomy & Physiology
http://webanatomy.net/
Words on website: Online
Anatomy & Physiology Resources
http://webanatomy.net/microscope/microscope.htm Words
on website: Microscope Images
http://www.bio.davidson.edu/COURSES/links/physiology.html
Words
on website: Physiology and Anatomy
http://www.fi.edu/tfi/units/life/anatomy/anatomy.html Words on website: Anatomy and Physiology
Search phrase with Google:
Anatomy http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Anatomy&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html Words
on website: Words on website: Human Anatomy Online
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/anatomy.html Words on website: MedlinePlus Anatomy
http://www.bartleby.com/107/
Words on website: Anatomy of the Human Body
http://www.instantanatomy.net/ Words
on website: Welcome to InstantAnatomy.net a website
with illustrations of the Human Body to aid the learning of Human Anatomy with
diagrams, podcasts and revision questions
http://www.e-anatomy.org/ Words on website: E-anatomy.org : Free
interactive atlas of human anatomy
http://www.rbdd.org/rbd.html Words on website: Rare bleeding
disorders (RBDs) are very rare diseases
http://www.uwhealth.org/healthinformation/main/health Words
on website: Health
Information and Topics
53
Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter
17 What We Can Control To Improve Our Health, Happiness, And The Quality Of
Life
AN
ASSESSMENT OF WHAT WE CAN AND CANNOT CONTROL IN RELATION TO THE QUALITY OF LIFE
What We Cannot Control In Relation To The
Quality Of Life
There are many ways that the quality of life can be evaluated, such as
from the perspective of health, psychology, sociology, economics, etc. Many of the factors that are sometimes
used to evaluate the quality of life, we have little or no control over. For example, we cannot control the
social and economic circumstances that we are born into. Some of us are born with health
problems, or because of genetic predispositions, or environmental factors,
pathological conditions develop.
Sometimes people make poor decisions at certain points in their lives,
because of lack of knowledge, social pressure, and/or adverse psychological
dynamics. This can range from
choosing the wrong career or mate, developing an unhealthy sedentary lifestyle,
quitting school, smoking cigarettes, and drug or alcohol abuse. Whatever the adverse decision was it
might have resulted in adverse habits or other undesirable consequences in the
present. The poor decisions that we
made in the past cannot be changed.
What We Can Control And The Quality Of
Life
However, undesirable consequences that we
experience in our daily lives from adverse: genetics, environment,
decision-making of the past, habits, social and economic circumstances, usually
can be alleviated to at least some degree.
In many cases undesirable circumstances, whatever its origin, can be
partially or totally circumvented, or even totally rectified. Some people who are faced with adverse
situations, learned to adequately deal with the resulting problems, and they
might even end up stronger, healthier, richer, and/or wiser because of the
challenges they faced.
In this chapter, I am focusing on factors and
problems that most people have partial or total control over, that affect
health, happiness, and the overall quality of life.
I will be focusing more on unhealthy or adverse
habits, because this represents areas where people can improve their lives, by
breaking or reducing bad habits.
Habits that are already healthy and very functional do not represent
areas where there is much room for further improvements. This does not imply that good habits
cannot be improved further with an investment in time and effort, which will
most likely result in additional rewards. However, it might be more fruitful to
become aware of your bad habits and invest your time and effort in replacing
these habits with functional and healthy behavior patterns.
HEALTH AND THE QUALITY OF LIFE IN RELATION TO OUR
HABITS
Before we discuss this topic, it is necessary to define the word
habit. A habit is a behavior
pattern that is repeated over a period of months, years, or even throughout
life. The behavior pattern can be
focused on a goal, or some type of pleasurable experience. The behavior pattern comprising a habit,
can also involve attempts to prevent discomfort or pain. Habits can be constructive, destructive,
or somewhere in between these extremes.
Some examples of habits will clarify the way I am using the terminology.
Examples Of Habits, And The Rewards They
Provide
Good study habits may be rewarding because they
result in high grades. Poor study
habits may be rewarding also for some individuals, because they minimize the,
time, effort and discomfort that may be associated with studying
diligently. Poor study habits might
also provide more time for relaxation and recreational activities.
Good health habits may be rewarding because it
makes you healthier, stronger, more energetic, more alert and successful. Poor health habits, might also be
rewarding, because it provides the opportunity to eat tasty junk food, avoid
the strain of exercise, and may also provide more time for relaxation and recreation.
Addictive behaviors are examples of the worst
type of habits, and this includes, cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, and
various types of drug abuse. Habits
of this type may involve the seeking of pleasure from an addictive substance. It can also involve taking an addictive
substance to avoid the pain of withdrawal, and/or to avoid the discomfort of
adverse life circumstances.
Habits can determine the quality of life, and
health to a very significant degree.
Good and bad habits have a tendency to initiate a cause and effect
sequence, or chain reaction of good or bad consequences. For example, good study habits can
result in high academic achievement.
The high achievement can lead to desirable and lucrative employment,
which in return may lead to some degree of wealth, and social prestige. This in return can lead to many
desirable opportunities throughout life, including better living conditions and
better health care. On the other
hand, poor study habits can lead to school failure, and lack of education. This can limit employment opportunities
to low-paying jobs, which is likely to result in financial problems. All of this can result in poor living
conditions, inadequate health care, and a stressful life with many
difficulties.
Another example is eating and exercise
habits. The habit of over eating,
and lack of exercise, will result in obesity. The obesity can cause health problems,
and for some people social difficulties.
The obesity, and related health problems can limit the ability to move
about, and interfere with most daily activities. This might limit employment
opportunities, especially if the obesity leads to disabling medical
conditions. All of this can cause
financial problems, which can lead to many other difficulties. We can see just the opposite of the
above sequence in a person that has good health habits. A person with good eating and exercise
habits, will have proper body weight, will most likely be stronger, healthier,
more capable physically, and possibly more alert and perhaps more capable
mentally. This can lead to better
employment and social opportunities, which can provide a wealthier and healthier
life.
A Note On The Probabilities Associated
With Good And Bad Habits
All of the concepts and examples presented above
are based on probabilities. Any type of bad habit will usually
have a set of adverse probabilities
associated with it. This is why
it is classified as a bad habit.
For example, habits of over eating, avoidance of exercise, cigarette
smoking, alcoholism, or drug abuse, increase the probabilities of health
problems, and financial difficulties.
Good habits have a set of desirable probabilities associated with them. This is the reason why they are
classified as good habits. For
example, good eating, exercise, study, and work habits increase the probabilities of good health,
maintaining employment, and the avoidance of financial problems.
One of the principles to understand is the more
good habits you have the greater your probabilities
will be for success, health, and a good quality of life, and vice a versa.
That is, bad habits reduce the probabilities
of success, health, and a good quality of life.
Another important idea to understand is the
concept of probability, which does
not imply certainty. For
example, a small number of people might actually succeed and become wealthy
because of poor study habits, and flunking out of school. This sometimes allows an individual to
focus on their specialized abilities, which results in great success, and a
wealthy life. There are individuals
that did well in school because of excellent study habits, but they cannot
obtain adequate employment. Some
people who are habitual overeaters and obese, remain relatively healthy,
successful and happy throughout life.
Some people with good eating and exercise habits might develop many
medical problems in spite of their efforts. Sometimes good exercise habits can lead
to serious injury, and even permanent disability.
However, the likelihood of adversity developing
as a direct or indirect result of bad habits are very high, but not absolutely
certain.
Good habits increase the likelihood of developing a healthier,
happier, and more successful life, but this does not represent absolute
certainty either.
Dividing Habits Into Four Categories
If we divide habits into categories, it might
provide insight that may help us evaluate our habitual behaviors, and make
improvements. I am dividing habits
into four categories, which are health habits, social habits, financial
habits and mental health habits. However, very often a habit can fit into
more than one of these categories.
All of these categories can affect every area of your life, especially
your health, and I am discussing these categories under the following four
subheadings.
Health habits can affect the quality of life more
than any other factor, in many cases.
No matter how much money, social status, or success a person has, health
habits can be the dominant determinant of the quality of life. Poor health habits will weaken the body
and mind, to varying degrees, and it will result in illnesses, which will
prevent the enjoyment obtainable from money, social status and success. This becomes obvious at the extreme
levels of poor health habits. Most
of us are aware of a number of very wealthy, successful and famous people, who
developed serious drug or alcohol habits, which led them to serious illness,
and early deaths.
To evaluate your health habits consider the
following questions:
· How
are your eating habits? Are you
overweight or underweight? Do you
eat a balanced diet daily, such as fruits, green and yellow vegetables, grains,
dairy products, and an adequate source of protein such as from meat, fish,
poultry, dairy products, or soybeans?
· Do
you exercise regularly? Do you do
some stretching, cardiovascular, and resistance exercises, daily or weekly?
· Do
you use any addictive substances, such as cigarette smoking, alcohol, or
illicit drugs?
· Based
on your answers to the above questions, what are all the possible ways that you
can improve your health habits?
Based on the way I am using the terminology in
this chapter, social habits relate to behavior patterns with other
people, organizations, social institutions, the law, and society in
general. For example, an honest and
law abiding citizen has functional habits in relation to the law. A criminal has dysfunctional habits in
relation to the law. Of course, the
concept of social habits is not limited to the law.
Some people have a tendency to get into conflict
with others, because of their behavior and thought patterns, which comprise a
set of dysfunctional social-habits.
In some cases, these individuals might not be doing anything that is
immoral, wrong, or obviously inappropriate. They might have mildly aggressive verbal
habits, where they criticize others, or embarrass people in public. When they are faced with hostile
reactions from others, they may habitually defend themselves verbally, by
arguing, and criticizing, in such a way that it increases the hostility greatly. They might possibly think of themselves
as victims, because they did not do anything that is illegal or immoral. However, individuals in this category
have a problematic set of social habits, which may be reinforced by
dysfunctional beliefs of how to deal with people.
Other examples of dysfunctional social-habits are
the result of habitual behaviors that relate to bad manners. The concept of inappropriate manners is
somewhat relative to the environment.
Some people develop behavior patterns and related social habits that
were appropriate in the environment that they grew up in, but may not be
appropriate in other environments, such as in the workplace.
There are also many people that get along
exceptionally well with others as a result of their behavior and thought
patterns. These individuals have
highly functional, or good social habits.
They have developed social skills, and possibly insight into the needs
and feelings of other people. Most
people, can probably improve their social habits and related skills toward this
ideal with a persistent effort and ongoing practice.
Financial habits relate to the way we handle
money. For example, a person with
poor financial habits, might spend money on unimportant items, impulsively, and
then have difficulty paying for the necessities of life, such as food, shelter,
electric bills, etc. Many
individuals are just the opposite of the above, and they manage their finances
successfully, and have some money left over for savings.
Between the extremes presented above, where are
you in terms of your financial habits?
If you had to rate yourself from 1 to 10, what number would you
choose. Let us assume the poorest
financial habits are 1 and excellent habits are a 10.
After raiding yourself, make a list of all the
possible ways that you might be able to improve your financial habits.
What are mental health habits? Based on the way I am using the
terminology, it refers to our thinking and behavior, especially in terms of the
way we respond to the stresses, challenges, opportunities, and choices we face
in life. It includes the strategies
and thought patterns that we generally utilize when faced with desirable and
undesirable circumstances. For
example, some individuals might have a tendency to cease activities, and go
into a depressed state when faced with adversity. Another individual may have the opposite
response, involving an increase in activity focused on eliminating or reducing
the adverse situation.
Most, if not all habits can also be classified as
mental health habits, because habits involve our thoughts, self-control, and
behavior, which are of course mental processes. For example, bad eating and exercise
habits can be classified as adverse physiological health habits. However, they can also be classified as
mental health habits, or mental health problems, because they involve behavior
and various psychological processes.
Thus, breaking any type of bad habits and/or
creating a good habit, is a way of improving your overall mental health, as
well as your physical health and quality of life.
SELF-IMPROVEMENT AND YOUR HABITS
Use Yourself As A Standard Of Comparison
For Your Self-Improvement Efforts
Generally, good habits might make you more successful
in many ways then you would have been without the good habits. However, good habits will not
necessarily make you more successful than others. For example, developing excellent
exercise habits will probably not make you an Olympic athlete. You might even be weaker and less
athletic than many people who do not exercise, but still much stronger and
healthier than you would be without the exercise program. The same idea applies to all types of
good habits, constructive activities, and self-improvement efforts.
Thus, when dealing with any type of
self-improvement program, you should use your self as the standard of
comparison, to evaluate your progress.
This involves a comparison of your status at two points in time. The most obvious example is with weight
reduction, which involves a comparison of weight when a diet was started, and
your current weight.
Self-Improvement Efforts Are More Likely
To Be Fruitful If They Are Focused On Improving Habits
Self-improvement efforts are likely to be most
productive when they are aimed at changing or improving habits. For
example, it is possible to lose weight by going on a crash diet, and/or
by taking medication to reduce appetite.
This will not change eating and exercise habits, and any weight that is
lost with crash diets or medication to curb appetite will probably be gain back
eventually. The alternative
approach to weight reduction is to focus on improving eating and exercise
habits. This involves planning
a low-calorie healthy and tasty diet that can be continued throughout life. It might include planning an exercise
program that can be carried out on a regular basis. It also can involve developing new
interests and engaging in pleasurable pursuits, with the goal of detracting
oneself from the habit of over eating.
Keep in mind that I am using weight reduction as an example. The same principle (focusing on
breaking bad habits and creating good ones) applies to most self-improvement
efforts to varying degrees.
Thus, an optimal way to start a self-improvement
program is to ask yourself the following questions about your habits:
· What
are the bad habits that I have to break or modify to achieve my goal? List all the habits that you need to
changed or eliminate.
· What
are the good habits that I have to create to obtain my goal? List all the good habits that you need
to develop to obtain your goal.
People often fail at self-improvement efforts,
and attempts to break bad habits, because they think that they can make changes
with willpower and nothing more.
Actually, applying some willpower may certainly be helpful with any type
of self-improvement effort, but by itself it will usually lead to failure.
If we examine how habits are created it will
provide the insight needed to break bad habits and create good ones. Habits are created by a repetition
of various behavior patterns over an extended period of time. Good habits are
often created deliberately by efforts involving the repetition of a behavior
pattern over a period of weeks, months or years. This by definition is a type of
practice. Bad habits are created in
the same way, except the repetitive behavior, or practice might be
inadvertent.
Thus, the key to creating or breaking bad habits
is practicing appropriate behavior patterns, over an extended period of
time. For example, to break bad
eating habits, you may start by changing your shopping habits, in relation to
food purchases. This involves an
effort to avoid the purchase and consumption of unhealthy foods, and the
purchase of healthy foods. This will
make it easier to practice good eating habits throughout life, which is
essential for permanent weight reduction.
The idea is repetition over an extended period of
time, involving months, years, and with most good habits, the practice must be
extended throughout life. However,
as the behavior pattern required for a good habit is repeated over a period of
weeks and months, it eventually becomes easier, and easier to carry out, with
progressively less strain and effort.
Practice Does Not Mean Perfect
It is important to understand that practicing new
behavior patterns, will usually not involve perfection. It will usually involve many failures,
and partial failures, coupled with successes. As practice continues over a period of
weeks, months, and sometimes-even years, the number of failures will generally
decrease and the number of successes will increase. For example, an individual trying to
develop good eating habits to lose weight, might periodically break their diet,
and might even gain some weight back, but this will happen less often if the effort
is maintained throughout the remainder of life.
Feedback And Correction Is Important For
Any Type Of Practice
One of the most important principles involved
with practice of any type is feedback and correction. This especially applies to the practice
needed for breaking bad habits, developing good habits, or for learning a new
skill. What I mean by feedback and
correction is a method consisting of periodic assessments in your progress, and
related corrections in techniques and strategies to optimize your chances of
reaching your objective. The
simplest example of feedback and correction is a person driving a car with the
goal of reaching a specific destination.
The driver observes and evaluates geography, road signs, traffic,
traffic lights, and controls the car accordingly. This involves a series of many small
corrections with the steering wheel, accelerator, and brake to reach the
destination.
When feedback and correction is applied to the
practice needed to obtain a self-improvement goal, the situation is more
complicated than the above example.
With the above example, the driver can easily evaluate her progress in
miles, and there are relatively few factors to control, such as the steering
wheel, the brake, and accelerator.
With the feedback and correction associated with obtaining a
self-improvement objective, usually many factors need to be evaluated, and
periodically corrected to maximize the chances of obtaining the goal. A
good example is a person that is trying to lose weight. They monitor their progress by weighing
themselves on a scale, to measure how much weight they lost. They might also monitor how they feel
with a reduced calorie diet, such as: do I feel sick, severely hungry, low in
energy, etc. All of this is
feedback, and it may necessitate periodic changes in various aspects of the
diet. For example, if the weight
reduction is inadequate, the calories may have to be reduced further, exercise
might have to be increased also. On
the other hand, if the weight reduction is very rapid, and the person feels
sick or hungry all the time, calories may have to be increased. In addition, if the feedback indicates
that the diet is not producing satisfactory results, it may have to be totally
changed, and/or other techniques may have to be used.
Changing techniques and strategies to maximize
the chances of obtaining a self-improvement goal is a very important corrective
procedure, especially when success is minimal. If
we continue with the above example, of weight reduction, a change of
strategies and techniques, can involve a different type of diet, a more
vigorous exercise program, professional assistance and medication, and/or the
application of various psychological methods. This can involve hypnosis, weight
reduction counseling, or various types of psychotherapy aimed at assisting with
weight reduction, or getting involved with highly pleasurable or interesting
activities to distract from the reduction in food intake.
Changing strategies and techniques is likely to
necessitate trial and error and experimentation. This can involve repeated trials with
many procedures and methods, until you obtain success. This can include seeking professional
assistance, changing professional assistance to a different type, or utilizing
different equipment that relates to your self-improvement goal.
Make Your Efforts And Related Practice
For Self-Improvement As Enjoyable As Possible
For most self-improvement goals a considerable
amount of time and effort and practice are required to obtain your
objective. Sometimes, this work can
be difficult and frustrating before success is finally obtained. Because of these difficulties many
people give up their self-improvement efforts. The solution to this problem is to try
to make the work needed for your self-improvement goal as pleasurable and
stimulating as possible. Exactly how
to do this depends on the goal that you are working on, and your personality
and overall life circumstances.
However, I will provide some examples, followed by some questions to
stimulate your thinking in this regard.
The simplest example is self-improvement efforts
that involve sitting, reading, writing, studying, and/or working with a computer. These activities can sometimes be quite
unpleasant, simply because you are sitting with little or no movement, for
prolonged periods of time. The
solution is to periodically get off your seat and move around a little, and
perhaps do a little quick stretching of your arms and legs. When you are working with a computer, it
may not even be necessary to stop your work. You can simply move your chair slightly,
and continue monitoring the computer screen. In addition, while you are sitting you
can move your arms and legs periodically while working. All of this will greatly reduce the
strain of any type of activity that involves prolonged sitting.
With any type of academic activity, such as for
school, tried to choose courses, and assignments that you find interesting and
enjoyable. Try to avoid courses and
assignments that you are not interested in, or are likely to find excessively
difficult and frustrating.
Another good example of a self-improvement effort
that can be made more pleasant, is improving health with physical
exercise. To make your exercise
sessions pleasurable, choose the type of exercise that you enjoy, and are
capable of doing without over straining your body. Some people might find various types of
amateur sports carried out with friends
a good source of exercise.
Basketball is an exceptionally good type of exercise for many
people. There are many people that
enjoy jogging, bicycling, or working out with friends at a gym.
For any type of self-improvement that involves
eating habits, you can make the experience more pleasant by carefully choosing
foods that you enjoy. This might
require additional effort and careful thinking while shopping. It also might require additional time to
prepare the food. If you happen to
be someone that enjoys cooking, you can invest some time in preparing elaborate
meals that you find tasty.
When engaging in any type of self-improvement
program, ask yourself the following questions to help you make the required
effort and your work more pleasurable:
What are all the necessary activities that I must carry out to achieve
my self-improvement goal? Make a
list of these activities. Place the
activities that you like less on top of your list and the ones you like more at
the bottom of the list. After completing
this, ask yourself for each item on the list, starting from the top, what are
all the possible ways that I can make this activity more pleasurable, and
interesting, or less unpleasant.
For activities that you find truly unpleasant, try to find alternatives
that are pleasant, or at least less unpleasant.
54
Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 18 Nutrition And Health
NUTRITION
FROM A PRACTICAL PERSPECTIVE
What Is A Healthy Well-Balanced Diet?
A healthy diet is comprised of many different
foods. That is one of the major
concepts of a healthy diet is variety.
A general rule is, the greater the variety of foods, the greater the
chances of obtaining all the nutrients that are needed for good health. Another advantage to variety is it
reduces the chances of any adverse effects of a specific food. An example is eating large quantities of
beef for protein, might raise saturated fat intake, body weight and risks of developing
heart disease. Another example is
large quantities of tuna fish might result in an increased risk of mercury
toxicity. However, an individual
that obtains protein from many different types of foods, such as small portions
of beef, fish, chicken, turkey, milk, soybeans, and peanuts, is less likely to
develop medical problems from an excess of a nutrient or a toxin.
A general principle is eating an excessive
quantity of the same type of food might strain various organs or enzyme
systems, or it can result an excess of a nutrient and/or a toxin. Eating small quantities of many
different types of foods eliminates or reduces these risks, and increases the
chances of obtaining all the nutrients you need for good health.
The Ideal Concept Of Food Variety
In Relation To A Healthy Diet
The ideal diet should involve many different
types of fruits and vegetables with different colors, and textures. This includes various types of leafy and
root vegetables. The diet should
involve many different types of meat, from various sections of the animal, such
as different cuts of beef, pork, lamb, chicken, and turkey. The ideal diet should also involve many
different types of fish, beans, and nuts.
This should be coupled with a variety of grain products from wheat,
rice, buckwheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, etc. The grain products should be
whole-grain. A variety of milk
products should be included as well.
This includes liquid milk, yogurt, buttermilk, and various types of
cheeses. The milk products ideally
should be from both cows and goats, and low-fat or no fat.
Caution is always required with foods that
contain excessive quantities of fat, which can lead to an excessive caloric
intake, and other problems. This is
especially the case with many cuts of beef, lamb and pork. For some people, avoiding these meets
altogether might be advisable, because of their high saturated fat
content. The same applies to most
cheeses, and any milk product that is not fat reduced. It is also necessary to avoid excessive
consumption of nuts, because of their very high fat content. However, most nuts provide a healthy
form of fat.
The ideal diet, for most people, in terms of
calories is about 25% fat, 10 or 15% protein, and the remainder of the calories
is primarily from whole-grain carbohydrates, fruits, and vegetables. Some people do better on diets with
higher fat content, providing the fat is from healthy food sources, such as
fish and nuts. However, it is
necessary to restrict carbohydrate intake to compensate for a diet that is
higher in fat.
Cultural Diversity In Relation To Food
Thus, a healthy diet will contain a large variety
of foods, but there are no absolute requirements for specific foods. It is possible to create a good diet
with almost any set of culturally based food preferences, including the typical
American diet, which includes dairy products, beef, pork, poultry, and
fish. However, a well-balanced diet
can easily be obtained from vegetable products with some sources of dairy. With somewhat more difficulty, it is
possible to obtain a perfectly healthy diet from vegetable sources, without any
animal products whatsoever.
A List Of Food Groups Or Food Categories
That Comprise A Healthy American Diet
Based on typical American food preferences, and
dietary habits, an ideal diet contains the food groups, or categories, listed
at the end of this paragraph.
(Note, the following list of food groups is my
delineation of an ideal diet, which is approximately the same as the typical
idealize diets described by most sources.
In this list, I use the word serving(s) in a relative manner. For example, one serving of beef for a
small person or child will be much smaller than one serving of beef for a tall
muscular adult, based on the way I am using the terminology.)
● At
least 2 or 3 servings of milk
products per day
This can include milk, cheese, yogurt, or buttermilk. However, ideally these products should
be low-fat, or fat-free, because the butterfat in milk products can be unhealthy,
especially if it is consumed in large quantities.
● 2 or
3 servings of Beef, pork, eggs, poultry, or fish per day
Ideally, beef and pork should involve meets that are low-fat. This can involve meets that have been
trimmed of excess fat. In most
cases, it is healthier to eat chicken, turkey, and fish instead of beef and
pork. If eggs are consumed they
should be consumed in moderation, because of their high cholesterol content. Ideally, egg whites, or processed egg
products made of egg whites, can be used instead of whole eggs, because they do
not contain cholesterol. It is
necessary to minimize the serving sizes to avoid excess calorie intake
especially if you are consuming beef, pork, or fatty poultry or fish.
● 1 or
more servings of a vegetable source of protein per day
This is an ideal, and it is optional, if you obtain adequate protein
from the foods mentioned above.
This can involve, soybeans, peanuts, mixed beans, or a mixture of
various types of nuts. If nuts are
consumed, extreme caution is necessary, because they contain a very large
quantity of calories from fat.
(For a vegetarian diet, three or four servings of
vegetables sources of protein per day may be necessary. In addition, the vegetarian diet might require
a vitamin B12 supplement, and possibly a calcium and iron supplement,
especially if dairy products are not consumed.)
● 1 or
2 servings of Green leafy vegetables per day
This includes spinach, turnip greens, kale, brussels sprouts, celery,
and many other green vegetables.
These foods are low in calories, assuming they are not prepared with
fats or oils. Thus they can be
consumed in relatively large quantities, which can be helpful for losing and
maintaining proper weight. These
foods also contain a good source of roughage (fiber).
● 1
serving a day of a vitamin A containing vegetable
Vegetables in this category are usually orangeish in color, and they
contain beta-carotene, which is a precursor to vitamin A. Good examples are carrots, and sweet
potatoes. There are many other
vegetables that contain vitamin A, but in much lower quantities then the
above.
● 3 or
more servings per day of Fruits and/or vegetables
(The vegetables are additions to the servings discussed above.) This includes apples, pears, peaches,
plums, apricots, grapes, bananas, mangoes, avocados, cucumbers, tomatoes,
cauliflower, beets, turnips, onions, radishes, etc. These foods are generally low in
calories, except for the avocados and bananas, and they can be helpful in a
weight reduction diet.
● 2 to
4 servings per day of Grain products
The grain products include breads, cereals, rice, and products that
are made from rice, wheat, and other grains. Ideally, all of the grain products
should be whole-grain, such as whole wheat bread, brown rice, and whole grain
cereals. A good compromise would be
50% whole-grain products. It is
necessary to minimize the serving sizes to avoid excess calorie intake with
grain products.
● 1
serving of A citrus fruit per day
Examples are oranges, and grapefruits, or the juice from these
fruits.
Other Methods Of Devising A Healthy And
Balanced Diet
There are a large number of ways of delineating a
well-balanced diet, and the list I presented above is one method. Similar methods involve placing foods
into various groups or categories.
However, whatever method is used, the results that you obtain will be
approximately the same.
One of the latest methods of devising a healthy
diet is presented at the USDA website: http://www.mypyramid.gov/index.html. This website is one of the best sources,
for a practical perspective on a well-balanced diet. It has many features, including software
to calculate your dietary needs, based on your height, sex, physical activity,
and age. This software runs off the
website at the following web address: http://www.mypyramid.gov/mypyramid/index.aspx.
There are a number of other websites that provide
various methods of deriving a well-balanced diet, including the following:
Search phrase with Google: The
basic food groups and creating a healthy diet http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=The+basic+food+groups+and+creating+a+healthy+diet&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more search
pages, with many links to other websites.
If you do not find what you want on this website, you can change the
search phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above
web address. After changing the
search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see a different set of
websites.
http://www.helpguide.org/life/healthy_eating_diet.htm
Words on website: Healthy Eating: Tips for a Healthy Diet
http://www.webmd.com/diet/tc/healthy-eating-overview Words on website: Healthy Eating
– Overview How can I start eating healthier?
http://www.hooah4health.com/body/nutrition/pyramid.htm Words on website: Dietary Guidelines
for Americans.
http://riley.nal.usda.gov/nal_display/index.php?info_center=11&tax_level=3&tax_subject=391&topic_id=1756&level3_id=6194&level4_id=0&level5_id=0&placement_default=0
Words on website: Build a Healthy Diet with Smart Shopping
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/basics/food_groups.htm
Words on website: Center for Disease Control and Prevention
http://www.drpbody.com/nutrition.html
Words on website: Good Nutrition
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_guide_pyramid Words on website: Wikipedia, Food guide pyramid
Search phrase with Google: The
older methods and food groups http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=The+older+methods+and+food+groups
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.jewishveg.com/schwartz/ffgroups.html
Words on website: The Four Food Groups, Old and New
55 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
UNDERSTANDING
AND CREATING DIETS BASED ON INDIVIDUAL NUTRIENTS
It is important to understand that the various methods of grouping
foods can make planning tasty and healthy diets relatively easy. However, the shortcomings of these
methods is sometimes a parent when dealing with diets of diverse cultures, or
people that are on restricted diets because of medical reasons, or individuals
that have unusual eating habits for one reason or another. In such cases, a more complex, and more
scientific method can be employed, which involves an assessment based on
individual nutrients.
However, creating diets based on individual
nutrients has some problems and disadvantages also. One of the most obvious disadvantages to
this method is dealing with the huge number of nutrients that are required by
the human body. Another problem is
all the nutrients needed by the human body, may not have been discovered. Thus, a diet that contains all the known
nutrients might not be adequate to maintain health. However, this difficulty can be overcome
by devising diets that contain all known nutrients, and contain a large variety of different types of
foods.
There are some basic concepts
that are important for creating diets based on the individual nutrients. These concepts are presented in the
following paragraphs.
A Basic Understanding Of The Chemicals
Needed By The Body
There are a large number of chemicals needed by
the human body. The various organs
and cells in the body can create some of these chemicals. However, to do this it requires raw
materials, which are chemicals that the body cannot create. All these raw materials come from food,
except for the inhaled oxygen from the air.
The most basic chemicals needed by the body are
water, various types of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. We need these four nutrients in
relatively large quantities. Most
of the other nutrients are vitamins and minerals, and they are needed in
relatively small, to extremely small quantities. In the following paragraphs, I briefly
describe the major nutrients. In
addition, I provide a list of websites for detailed information on all the
known nutrients.
Water As A Nutrient, And Related Websites
Water is needed in greater quantities (in terms
of mass) than any other nutrient, and it is roughly 50 to 60% of the weight of
the body. Water is used as a
solvent for the many chemical processes that take place in the human body. Most sources recommend at least 2 quarts
of water per day, for a typical adult.
When temperatures are warm, considerably more than 2 quarts a day may be
required because of loss of water through perspiration. When strenuous exercise is carried out
over a prolonged period of time, additional water may be required also.
For more information on water, see the following
websites:
Search phrase with Google: “Water
as a nutrient” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CWater+as+a+nutrient%E2%80%9D&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.rcn.org.uk/__data/assets/pdf_file/0020/70382/5-Did_you_know.pdf Words on website: Facts about border
as a nutrient
http://www.lazydesis.com/chai-time/20342-water-nutrient-what-you-need-know.html
Words on website: Water as a nutrient: what you need to know
http://www.afpafitness.com/articles/?page_id=494
Words on website: Why Water Is
The Most Important Nutrient For Endurance Athletes
http://www.querycat.com/faq/d69db87818853bf74fef936be80666f1 Words on website: Why is Water Considered the Single
Most Important Nutrient for Heath of the Human Body?
Search phrase with
Google: Risks of inadequate
water intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Risks+of+inadequate+water+intake
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab000503.html
Restricted versus liberal water intake for preventing morbidity and
mortality in preterm infants
http://www.springerlink.com/content/l30211010066u2m7/
Words on website: Summary To
prevent thermal injuries during distance running, the
http://faculty.olin.edu/~jcrisman/Service/KWTWebNews/Nutrition/water.htm Words on website: Water Intake for Health and Well
Being
Words on website: Water
Intoxication: A Possible Complication During Endurance Exercise—A
Commentary Ian R. Rogers, FACEM
http://www.grandtimes.com/water.html
Words on website: Drink to Your Health
Search phrase with Google: Risks
of excess water intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Risks+of+excess+water+intake&btnG=Search
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http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/14/health/14water.html
Words on website: Study Cautions Runners to Limit Their Water Intake
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/water/NU00283
Words on website: Water: How much should you drink every day?
http://agbiosafety.unl.edu/riskasscience.shtml Words on website: Class Exercise -
What is a Hazard?
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/6263029.stm
Words on website: Why
is too much water dangerous?
56 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Protein is not a single chemical. There are many different types of
proteins, and they are broken down in the digestive process into amino
acids. The amino acids are used to
create the proteins needed in the body, to build various structures, and to
carry out various chemical reactions.
Many enzymes, hormones, and other chemicals are created with the amino
acids.
The human body has the ability to create some of
the amino acids it needs from other amino acids. However, there are nine amino acids that
the body cannot create, and they are called essential amino acids ( lysine,
tryptophan, valine, isoleucine, methionine, threonine, phenylalanine,
histidine, and leucine). (Some
sources list only eight essential amino acids.)
Not all
proteins contain the nine essential amino acids, and when they do not, they are
often called incomplete proteins.
However, various types of incomplete proteins can be combined so all the
amino acids will be obtained in the diet.
When a dietary protein contains all nine of the essential amino acids,
it is called complete protein.
Examples of proteins that are complete, (contain all nine of the
essential amino acids) include protein from, eggs, milk, and many other animal
products. Most vegetable products,
do not supply complete protein, but there are some good exceptions, such as
soybeans, and peanuts. Incomplete
vegetable sources of protein can be used in combination so that all of the nine
essential amino acids are obtained.
The amino acids obtained from protein can also be
used as a source of energy.
However, amino acids are not an efficient source of energy, because they
must undergo chemical conversion, and it results in nitrogen waste
products.
For more information about protein, see the
following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Protein
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Protein&btnG=Search
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_in_nutrition
Words on website: From Wikipedia Protein
in nutrition
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein
Words on website: From Wikipedia Proteins
are large organic compounds made of amino acids
http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/ Words on website: The Nutrition
Source Protein Pay attention to the protein package. Fish, poultry, and beans
are your best bets.
http://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/guide/benefits-protein
Words on website: This article is from the WebMD Feature Archive
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/basics/protein.htm
Words on website: Center for Disease Control and Prevention What do you think about when you hear
the word protein?
http://www.proteinscience.org/ Words on website: Proteins Science Publication of the Protein Society
http://www.answers.com/topic/protein?cat=health Words on website: Proteins are
fundamental components of all living cells and include many substances, such as
enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, that are necessary for the proper
functioning of an organism.
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http://www.vrg.org/nutrition/protein.htm
Words on website: Summary It is very easy for a vegan diet to meet
the recommendations for protein, as long as calorie intake is adequte. Strict
protein combining is not necessary; it is more important to eat a varied diet
throughout the day.
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4777 Words on website: Vegetarian Diets
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vegetarian-diet/HQ01596 Words on website: Vegetarian
diet: How to get the best nutrition A well-planned vegetarian diet is a healthy
way to meet your nutritional needs. Find out what you need to know about a
plant-based diet.
http://www.diet4uonline.com/highproteinvegetariandiet.htm Words on website: Vegetarian High
Protein Quick Weight Loss Diet
http://ask.metafilter.com/76911/Highprotein-veggie-diet-anybody-tried-it
Words on website: High-protein veggie diet -- anybody tried it?
http://www.mypyramid.gov/tips_resources/vegetarian_diets.html
Words on website:
Vegetarian diets can meet all
the recommendations for nutrients. The key is to consume a variety of foods and
the right amount of foods to meet your calorie needs.
http://ltc.cit.cornell.edu/courses/ns421/Protein.html Words on website: Proteins are a
secondary component to an athlete's diet.
Proteins should comprise about 12-15% of the diet, and may need to be
increased if the individual is on a low calorie diet.
Search phrase with Google: Essential
amino acids http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Essential+amino+acids&btnG=Search
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essential_amino_acid Words on website: Nine amino acids are generally regarded as essential for humans: phenylalanine,
valine, threonine, tryptophan,
isoleucine,
methionine,
histidine,
leucine, and lysine.
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Deficiency http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Protein+Deficiency&btnG=Search
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http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic1923.htm Words on website: Protein C Deficiency
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_in_nutrition Words on website: Protein in
nutrition
http://www.oldandsold.com/articles06/nutrition-6.shtml Words on website: Protein
Deficiency
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effects of excess protein intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=The+effects+of+excess+protein+intake&btnG=Google+Search
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http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/134/8/2084S Words on website: High Protein Intake
Affects Lean Body Mass but Not Energy
http://www.beyondveg.com/cordain-l/prot-calc/prot-calcium-loss-1a.shtml
Words on website: Are Higher Protein Intakes Responsible for
Excessive Calcium Excretion?
http://jas.fass.org/cgi/content/abstract/77/12/3238 Words on website: JOURNAL ARTICLE The effect of excess protein on
growth performance and protein metabolism of finishing barrows and gilts
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1360290
Words on website: Effects of excess protein intake on nitrogen utilization
in young men.
http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=825631
Words on website: Effect of dietary protein on bone loss in elderly men and
women : The
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of protein http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Sources+of+protein&btnG=Google+Search
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http://www.theveggietable.com/articles/protein.html Words on website: There is a popular
misconception that meat is the only real source of protein, and thus that a
vegetarian diet is inherently unhealthy due to a lack of protein.
http://www.webmd.com/fitness-exercise/guide/good-protein-sources Words on website: The Good Protein
Chart
http://www.new-fitness.com/nutrition/protein.html
Words on website: Protein –Definition, Requirements, Food Sources
Search phrase with Google: The
best vegetable protein sources http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=The+best+vegetable+protein+sources
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http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/protein/
Words on website:
Vegetable Protein
Guide - Vegetable
Proteins are Often Ignored Words
on website: http://www.n101.com/vegetable_protein_guide_A10005.html
http://www.hempseed.ca/high-protein-food.ihtml Words on website: Hemp
Seed is Natures Perfect High Protein Food
http://www.vrg.org/nutrition/protein.htm
Words on website: Protein in the Vegan
Diet
57
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Carbohydrates are not one chemical. There are many types of carbohydrates,
such as various types of starch, sucrose (commonly used cane sugar), glucose,
and many others. Starches and complex
sugars, (such as sucrose) are broken down into simple sugar (glucose) in the
digestive process. Glucose is used
as a fuel for energy.
For more
information on carbohydrates see the following websites:
Search phrase with Google: Carbohydrates
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Carbohydrates&btnG=Google+Search
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate Words on website: From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Carbohydrate
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=61 Words on website: Carbohydrates
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/carbohydrates.html
Words on website: Carbohydrates are one of the main types of food. Your
liver breaks down carbohydrates into glucose (blood sugar). Your body uses this
sugar for energy for your cells, tissues and organs.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/carbohydrates.html
Words on website: Carbohydrates
are one of the main types of food.
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone/basics/carbohydrates.htm
Words on website: Center for Disease Control and Prevention Carbohydrates
http://www.answers.com/topic/carbohydrate?cat=technology Words on website: Any of a group of
organic compounds that includes sugars, starches, celluloses, and gums and
serves as a major energy source in the diet of animals. These compounds are
produced by photosynthetic plants and contain only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, usually in the ratio 1:2:1.
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4471
Words on website: American Heart Association Carbohydrates and Sugars
http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/carbohydrates.html Words on website: Carbohydrates -
Chemical Structure
http://library.thinkquest.org/3659/orgchem/carbohydrates.html
Words on website:
Carbohydrates are naturally
occuring polyhydroxyaldehydes or polyhydroxyketones, or they are compounds that
react with water to give these compounds. They include sugars, starches,
cellulose, and similar substances.
Search phrase with Google: Excess
carbohydrate intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Excess+carbohydrate+intake
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http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/w8079e/w8079e08.htm
Words on website: The role of
carbohydrates in maintenance of health
Carbohydrates
in the diet Energy
balance Physical
activity Carbohydrate
and behaviour Carbohydrate
through the life cycle
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8886565 Words on website: High-fat and high-carbohydrate diets
and energy balance.
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of carbohydrate intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Deficiency+of+carbohydrate+intake
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http://www.commonvoice.com/article.asp?colid=5301 Words on website: Carbohydrates - How Much is
Too Much?
Search phrase with Google: Healthy
sources of whole-grain carbohydrates
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http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/carbohydrates/
Words on website: The Nutrition Source
Carbohydrates
http://www.annecollins.com/carbs-diet-information.htm
Words on website: Carbohydrates & Diet Information
http://www.beforewisdom.com/veg/archive/carbohydrates.html
Words on website: Carbohydrates Going with the
(Whole) Grain
http://ironman.com/training/nutrition/jennifer-hutchinson-focuses-on-the-importance-of-carbohydrate-energy
Words on website: Going with the Whole
GrainCarbohydrates: Going with the Whole Grain
58 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of
the following:
Fats are not a single chemical. There are many different types of fats,
and they are broken down into various types of fatty acids and glycerin in the
digestive process. These chemicals
are used for many purposes, including a source of energy, for body structure
and insulation in the form of body fat.
For more information on fats, see the
following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Fats http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Fats&btnG=Search
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat Words on website: Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4582
Words on website: Fat AHA Scientific Position The major
kinds of fats in the foods we eat are saturated, polyunsaturated,
monounsaturated and trans fatty acids. Saturated fats and trans fats raise
blood cholesterol. Dietary cholesterol also raises blood cholesterol. A high
level of cholesterol in the blood is a major risk factor for coronary heart
disease, which leads to heart attack, and also increases the risk of stroke.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/transfat.html#whatis Words on website: What is Trans Fat? Unlike other fats, the majority of trans fat is
formed when liquid oils are made into solid fats like shortening and hard
margarine. However, a small amount of trans fat is found naturally,
primarily in some animal-based foods. Essentially, trans fat is made
when hydrogen is added to vegetable oil -- a process called hydrogenation.
Hydrogenation increases the shelf life and flavor stability of foods containing
these fats.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qatrans2.html Words on website: US Food and Drug
Administration Section 1 -
Fat, Trans Fatty Acid (Trans Fat), and Cholesterol
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/qatrans2.html#s1q1 Words on website: What are the main
types of fatty acids?
http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-cholesterol/
Words on website: The Nutrition
Source Fats and Cholesterol
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002468.htm
Words on website: Medical
Encyclopedia
Search phrase with Google: “Fatty
acids” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CFatty+acids%E2%80%9D&btnG=Google+Search
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid Words on website: From Wikipedia Omega-3 fatty acid
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty_acid Words on website: Fatty acids
Search phrase with Google:
Glycerol http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Glycerol&btnG=Google+Search
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http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-glycerol.html Words on website: glycerol From: The
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition
| Date: 2008
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycerol
Words on website: Glycerol
Search phrase with Google: Excess
fat intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Excess+fat+intake
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http://www.faqs.org/nutrition/Erg-Foo/Fats.html
Words on website: Lipids are organic substances consisting mostly of
carbons and hydrogen atoms.
http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/72/5/1399S
Words on website: Dietary fat
intake and body mass index in Spanish children
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of fat intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Deficiency+of+fat+intake
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http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/nutrition/nutr4835.html Words on website: Fat facts
http://www.stockton.edu/ospreys/Nutrition/03/Fats2-03.htm
Words on website: Do Athletes Need Fat in Their Diets?
Deficiencies of fatty acids
in the diet http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Deficiencies+of+fatty+acids+in+the+diet
http://borntoexplore.org/omega.htm
Words on website: ADDers Are More Likely to Have Fatty Acid Deficiencies
http://www.biolreprod.org/cgi/content/abstract/19/4/736
Words on website: Effects of Deficiency of Essential
Fatty Acids and Treatment with Prostaglandin E2 on the
Ultrastructure of the Rat Testis
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans_fat
Words on website: Trans fat From Wikipedia
http://www.fda.gov/FDAC/features/2003/503_fats.html
Words on website: The
Food and Drug Administration Revealing Trans Fats
59
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Calcium is used for bone structure, and various
chemical processes. The following
websites provide detailed information on calcium metabolism and bone
structure.
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“Calcium as a nutrient” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4ADBR_enUS230US230&q=Calcium+as+a+nutrient
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http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/home_4670_ENU_HTML.htm Words on website: Calcium: An
essential nutrient for teens
http://ic.ucsc.edu/~flegal/etox80e/SpecTopics/calcium.html
Words on website: CALCIUM: AN ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT AND TOXIN
http://www.vegansociety.com/food/nutrition/calcium.php Words on website: Calcium
is a major mineral essential for healthy bones and teeth.
http://chetday.com/nutrientcalcium.htm Words on website: Making Sense of the
Nutrient Calcium
http://www.nutramed.com/nutrients/calcium.htm Words on website: Nutrients and
Nutrition
Search phrase with Google: Calcium
metabolism http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Calcium+metabolism
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_metabolism Words on website: Calcium metabolism or calcium homeostasis is
the mechanism by which the body maintains adequate calcium levels.
Derangements of this mechanism lead to hypercalcemia or hypocalcemia, which both can
have important consequences for health.
http://www.anapsid.org/mbd2.html Words on website: Calcium metabolism
and metabolic bone disease
http://calciummetabolism.blogspot.com/ Words on website: CALCIUM METABOLISM
Search phrase with Google: Deficiencies
of calcium http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Deficiencies+of+calcium&btnG=Search This website consists
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http://www.thedietchannel.com/What-You-Should-Know-About-Calcium-Deficiency.htm Words on website: Calcium Deficiency:
What You Should Know
http://www.calciuminfo.com/osteperosis/calciumdeficiency.aspx
Words on website: The
Problem of Calcium Deficiency is Serious
http://www.4.waisays.com/questioning.htm
Scientists Questioning The
Excessive Calcium Theory
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/133/10/3239
Words on website: High
Meat Diet, Acid-Base Status and Calcium Retention
Phosphorus is used to build and maintain bones,
along with calcium. Phosphorus is
also involved in many chemical processes throughout the body, including the
cribs cycle and related energy processes involving ADP and ATP.
For detailed information on phosphorus see the
following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Phosphorus
as a nutrient http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Phosphorus+as+a+nutrient&btnG=Google+Search
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http://www.nutritionalcenter.com/site/en/reference/nutrients/view/82 Words on website: Phosphorus
Supplement Info and Products
Phosphorus Benefits, Side
Effects, and Research
AKA: , Phosphorus
http://bcn.boulder.co.us/basin/data/BACT/info/TP.html
Words on website: General Information on Phosphorus
http://www.naturodoc.com/library/nutrition/phosphorus.htm
Words on website: Dietary Phosphorus
http://www.altmd.com/Articles/Phosphorus
Next to calcium, phosphorus
is the most abundant mineral in the body.
http://www.vitamins-supplements.org/dietary-minerals/phosphorus.php Words on website: Phosphorus
supplements
Search phrase with Google: Excessive
phosphorus intake http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Excessive+phosphorus+intake&btnG=Search
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http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/phosphorus/
Words on website:
Search phrase with Google: Phosphorus
deficiency http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Phosphorus+deficiency&btnG=Search
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http://www.vitamins-nutrition.org/vitamins/phosphorus.html
Words on website: The Benefits of Phosphorus
Search phrase with Google: Phosphorus
metabolism http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Phosphorus+metabolism&btnG=Search
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
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a different set of websites.
http://metabolismphos.blogspot.com/
Words on website: PHOSPHORUS METABOLISM
Vitamin A is used for various chemical processes,
especially for site, but it is also used for other processes in the body,
including the maintenance of the skin structure. For detailed information on vitamin A
see the following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
A http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Vitamin+A
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A
Words on website:
Vitamin A From Wikipedia
http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamina.asp
Words on website:
Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet:
Vitamin A and Carotenoids
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminA/ Words on website: Vitamin A
http://www.lifeclinic.com/focus/nutrition/vitamin-a.asp Words on website: Vitamin A, also
called retinol, helps your eyes adjust to light changes when you come in from
outside and also helps keep your eyes, skin and mucous membranes moist.
Search phrase with Google: Deficiencies
of vitamin A http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Deficiencies+of+vitamin+A
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http://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/vad/en/
Words on website: Vitamin A deficiency
http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic2381.htm
Words on website: Vitamin A Deficiency
http://www.solutions-site.org/artman/publish/article_57.shtml
Words on website: Control
of vitamin A deficiency
Search phrase with Google: Excessive
vitamin A, vitamin A toxicity http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Excessive+vitamin+A%2C+vitamin+A+toxicity&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_poisoning
Words on website: From
Wikipedia Vitamin poisoning, or
hypervitaminosis, refers to a condition of high storage levels of vitamins, which
can lead to toxic symptoms.."
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
A metabolism http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+A+metabolism
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/potm/2005_6/Page2.htm
Words on website: Vitamin
A Metabolism
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
A and the skin http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+A+and+the+skin
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Vitamin C is used for many
chemical processes in the human body.
For detailed information on vitamin C consult the following websites
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
C http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+C
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C
Words on website:
From Wikipedia
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminC/ Words on website: Vitamin C,
also known as ascorbic acid, is a water-soluble vitamin.
http://ohioline.osu.edu/hyg-fact/5000/5552.html
Words on website:
http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/vitamin-c-000339.htm
Words on website: Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
C metabolism http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+C+metabolism
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez/
Words on website: To
get started with PubMed, enter one or more search terms.
Search phrase with Google: Source
of vitamin C http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Source+of+vitamin+C&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
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http://www.vitamindeals.info/articles/vitamin-c.html
Words on website: Vitamin C, also known as Ascorbic Acid, works by helping
to form and maintain collagen. Collagen is a protein that enhances the body's
ability to absorb iron.
http://www.usd.edu/~bnoiva/vitc.htm Words on website: What Foods are the
Best Source of Vitamin C?
Vitamin D is used to build and maintain bone,
along with calcium. For detailed
information on vitamin D consult the following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
D http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+D&btnG=Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamind.asp
Words on website: Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D Words on website: Vitamin
D From Wikipedia
Search phrase with Google: deficiencies
of vitamin D http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=deficiencies+of+vitamin+D&btnG=Search
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a different set of websites.
http://www.vitamindcouncil.org/treatment.shtml
Words on website: Treating Disease With Vitamin D
Words on website: Excess
vitamin D, and toxicity http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Excess+vitamin+D%2C+and+toxicity
http://www.vitamindcouncil.org/vitaminDToxicity.shtml Words on website: The Truth About
Vitamin D Toxicity
Vitamin D and bone structure http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+D+and+bone+structure
http://www.medscape.com/viewprogram/6311
Words on website: Modern Advances in the Understanding of Bone Structure
http://www.oif.org/site/PageServer?pagename=BoneStruct
Words on website: Understanding the Structure of Bones Vitamin D deficiency
http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Excessive+vitamin+D
Words on website: Excessive vitamin D
http://kidneydiseases.about.com/od/medications/a/VitDEditorial01.htm
Words on website: Is There a Risk of Getting Too Much Vitamin D?
http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/294/18/2386
Vitamin D is a vitamin (a
substance the body requires in small doses for proper nutrition and function)
that is fat-soluble, meaning that it is dissolved and stored in the fat of your
body.
A number of chemical processes in the human body
involve vitamin E. These chemical
processes are involved with blood cells, the heart, and sex organs. Vitamin E is primarily known by the
general public as an antioxidant that protects cells. However, there are many unproven
theories about vitamin E. It
allegedly has antioxidant properties that slows or reduces the aging
process. For more information, see
the following websites.
Search phrase with Google:
Vitamin E http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+E
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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a different set of websites.
http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/vitamine.asp
Words on website: Vitamin E
Office of Dietary Supplements • National Institutes of Health
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_E
Words on website: From Wikipedia
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminE/ Words on website: Vitamin E
http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/294/1/56?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=vitamin+E+primary+prevention+of+cardiovascular&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT
Words on website: Vitamin E in
the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease and Cancer
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Deficiency+of+vitamin+E
Words on website: Deficiency of vitamin E
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/ataxia-with-vitamin-e-deficiency
Words on website: Ataxia with Vitamin E Deficiency
http://www.emedicine.com/Med/topic2384.htm
Words on website: Vitamin E Toxicity
Search phrase with Google: What
is the function or purpose of vitamin E http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=What+is+the+function+or+purpose+of+vitamin+E
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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a different set of websites.
http://www.nutristrategy.com/nutrition/vitamine.htm
Vitamin E protects red blood
cells and helps prevent destruction of vitamin A and C.
http://www.lenntech.com/vitamins/vitamin-e.htm
Vitamin E is an antioxidant which intercepts
free radicals and therefore prevents lipid destruction chain reactions.
Vitamin K is involved with blood clotting, to
prevent hemorrhages. For detailed
information on vitamin K consult the following websites.
Search phrase with Google:
vitamin K http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=vitamin+K
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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a different set of websites.
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminK/ Vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_K Words on website: Vitamin K From
Wikipedia
http://www.vitamins-supplements.org/vitamin-K.php Words on website: Vitamin K
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=11081
Words on website: Definition of Vitamin K
http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=72# Words on website: 3Dchem.com
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+K+metabolism&start=10&sa=N Words on website: Vitamin K
metabolism
http://www.newsrx.com/newsletters/Blood-Weekly/2004-02-19/0219200433311BW.html
Words on website: Vitamin K metabolism clarified
http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/83/9/3258
Vitamin K Status and Bone
Health
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
K deficiency
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+K+deficiency
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
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a different set of websites.
http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/common/standard/transform.jsp?requestURI=/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/vitamin_k_deficiency.jsp
Words on website: Vitamin K deficiency exists when chronic failure to eat
sufficient amounts of vitamin K results in a tendency for spontaneous bleeding
or in prolonged and excessive bleeding with trauma or injury.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/medical/NS_patient-vitamine
Words on website: Vitamin E
Websites On Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin) is involved with many
chemical processes in the human body, and it is especially important for the
nervous system. For detailed
information on vitamin B1 see the following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
B1 (Thiamin) http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Vitamin+B1+%28Thiamin%29&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
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a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamin
Words on website: Thiamin
From Wikipedia
http://vitamins.ultimatefatburner.com/vitamin-b1-thiamin.html
Words on website: Thiamin, Vitamin B1 Benefits and Side Effects!
http://chemistry.about.com/od/imagesclipartstructures/ig/Vitamin-Chemical-Structures/Vitamin-B1.htm
Words on website: Vitamin B1 (Thiamine Chloride)
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-thiamin.html
Words on website: Thiamin (thiamine), vitamin B1
http://chemistry.gsu.edu/glactone/vitamins/b1/
Words on website: Thiamine is the currently accepted name for vitamin B1
http://www.3dchem.com/molecules.asp?ID=62#
Words on website: Vitamin B1, Thiamine @ 3Dchem.com Structures of Vitamins
Excessive quantities of
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
http://www.feinberg.northwestern.edu/nutrition/factsheets/vitamin-b1.html Words on website: Physiological Functions
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Deficiencies+of+Vitamin+B1+%28Thiamin%29+&btnG=Search Words on website: Deficiencies of
Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
http://www.healthvitaminsguide.com/vitamins/vitamin-b1.htm
Words on website: Vitamin
B1 (Thiamin)
http://www.healthylivinganswers.com/vitamins/vitamin-b1-thiamin.html
Words on website: Vitamin B1 Sources - Vitamin B1 Deficiency
Websites On Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) is involved in many
chemical processes, including those of the nervous system. The following websites provide detailed
information about vitamin B2.
Search phrase with Google:
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Vitamin+B2+%28Riboflavin%29
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
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a different set of websites.
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-riboflavin.html Words on website: Riboflavin (vitamin
B2)
http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/vitamin-b2-000334.htm
Words on website: Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vitamin-B2/NS_patient-riboflavin
Words on website: Riboflavin (vitamin B2)
http://www.lifeclinic.com/focus/nutrition/vitamin-b2.asp Words on website: Vitamin B2
(Riboflavin)
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/riboflavin/ Words on website: Riboflavin is a
water-soluble B vitamin, also known as vitamin B2.
http://www.oralchelation.com/ingred/vitaminb2.htm
Words on website: Vitamin B2 – Riboflavin Table of Contents
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin Words on website: Riboflavin From
Wikipedia
http://www.vitamindeals.info/articles/riboflavin.html
Words on website:
Vitamin B2 / Riboflavin
Websites On Niacin (Or Niacinamide)
Niacin (or Niacinamide) is involved in many
chemical processes, including those of the nervous system. For detailed information on niacin see
the following websites.
Search phrase with Google:
Niacin (or Niacinamide) http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Niacin+%28or+Niacinamide%29
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/niacin/NS_patient-niacin Words on website: Niacin (Vitamin
B3, Nicotinic acid), Niacinamide
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-niacin.html
Words on website: Niacin (Vitamin B3, Nicotinic acid), Niacinamide
http://www.rxmed.com/b.main/b2.pharmaceutical/b2.1.monographs/CPS-%20Monographs/CPS-%20(General%20Monographs-%20N)/NIACIN%20%20NIACINAMIDE.html
Words on website: Action And Clinical Pharmacology: Niacin and niacinamide
are water-soluble B complex vitamins.
http://www.lonza.com/niacin/en/what.html Words on website: Niacin and
niacinamide are vitamins of the Vitamin-B group having equivalent vitamin
activity. Both are precursors in the synthesis of the pyridine coenzymes NAD
and NADP involved in cell metabolism.
http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:RkZoiRvcOuwJ:www.buyfl.com/MayoClinic.pdf+Niacin+(or+Niacinamide)&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=26&gl=us Words on website: Niacin (Vitamin B3,
Nicotinic acid), Niacinamide
http://www.querycat.com/faq/7782cd477d40180312d5bd6d962b3fd3
Words on website: Frequently
Asked Questions What is the difference
between niacin and niacinamide (nicotinamide)?
http://www.discountvitaminsandherbs.com/library_category_vitamin_niacin_b3.php
Words on website: Two related compounds - nicotinic acid and niacinamide
(nicotinamide) are both called niacin.
Websites On Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) is involved in many
chemical processes, including those of the nervous system. For detailed information on vitamin B6
see the following websites.
Search phrase with Google:
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Vitamin+B6+%28Pyridoxine%29&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.umm.edu/altmed/articles/vitamin-b6-000337.htm
Words on website: Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6
Words on website: Vitamin B6
From Wikipedia
Search phrase with Google:
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) deficiency http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+B6+%28Pyridoxine%29+deficiency
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridoxine_deficiency
Words on website: Pyridoxine deficiency
http://www.lef.org/prod_hp/abstracts/php-ab417.html
Words on website: VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE) Table of Contents
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/vitaminB6/
Words on website: Vitamin
B6 is a water-soluble vitamin that was first isolated in the 1930s.
Websites On
Folic Acid
Folic acid is involved with a number of processes
throughout the body, especially those that involve DNA synthesis. This includes the formation of new
cells, including red blood cells.
For detailed information on folic acid, see the following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Folic
Acid http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Folic+Acid
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folic_acid
Words on website: Folic acid
From Wikipedia
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/folicacid.html
Words on website: Folic Acid
Also called: Folacin, Folate, Pteroylglutamic acid, Vitamin B9
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/folicacid/ Words on website: CDC Folic Acid:
Topic Home Why Folic Acid is So Important
http://www.kidshealth.org/parent/pregnancy_newborn/pregnancy/folic_acid.html
Words on website: What Is Folic
Acid?
Search phrase with Google: Folic
Acid deficiency http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Folic+Acid+deficiency
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic802.htm Words on website: Folic Acid
Deficiency
http://www.innvista.com/health/ailments/anemias/folicdef.htm
Words on website: Folic Acid Deficiency Anemia
http://www.umm.edu/ency/article/000354.htm
Words on website: Folate deficiency
http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/folic-acid-deficiency-anemia-home-treatment Words on website: You can prevent or reverse folic acid
deficiency anemia by eating a diet that includes foods high in folic acid,
including citrus fruits, leafy green vegetables, and fortified cereals.
http://www.answers.com/topic/folic-acid-deficiency-anemia-causes-and-symptoms?cat=health
Words on website: Medical Encyclopedia: Folic Acid Deficiency Anemia:
Causes and symptoms
Vitamin B12 is involved with various chemical
processes, including those involved with the formation of blood cells. For detailed information on vitamin B12
see the following websites.
Search phrase with Google: Vitamin
B12 http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Vitamin+B12
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12 Words on website: Vitamin B12
From Wikipedia
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/vitamin-B12/NS_patient-vitaminb12 Words on website: Vitamin B12
http://www.aafp.org/afp/20030301/979.html Words on website: Vitamin B12 Deficiency
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/natural/patient-vitaminb12.html Words on website: Vitamin B12
Pantothenic acid is found in most if not all
living cells. It is required to
form coenzyme A, and it is involved in the Krebs cycle, and various
chemical processes involving the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids, and certain
amino acids. For
detailed information on Pantothenic acid see the following websites.
Search phrase with
Google: Pantothenic Acid http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&hl=en&q=Pantothenic+Acid&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
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website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acid
Words on website: Pantothenic acid From Wikipedia
http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/vitamins/pa/ Words on website:
Pantothenic
acid, also known as vitamin B5, is essential to all forms of life (1).
Pantothenic acid is found throughout living cells in the form of coenzyme A
(CoA), a vital coenzyme
in numerous chemical reactions (2).
http://www.vitamins-supplements.org/pantothenic-acid.php
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of the following:
THEORIES
AND EXCUSES FOR THE PROBLEM OF OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY IN THE DEVELOPED
COUNTRIES
A major health problem in the
Why The Theory Of A Sedentary Lifestyle,
(Lack Of Exercise) And Overweight Fails
One of
the theories, or excuses, for the problem of overweight is a sedentary
lifestyle. It is true that
individuals who are physically active, will burn up more calories, then people
who work at a desk job.
However, the difference in caloric needs between physically active and
sedentary lifestyles, in most cases is probably less than 600 calories. In some cases, the variations in caloric
needs can be much smaller, or much greater. However, whatever the difference is,
it can easily be compensated for by variations in food intake, and thus ideal
weight can be easily maintained regardless of your level of physical activity. Simply put, if you do little or no
exercise, you simply eat less, if you are physically active, you must eat more
to maintain normal weight.
All of
the above will become obvious, if you observe the people you know, and work
with. You will find that there are many
people, who are very inactive, but they are slim. The important idea to understand is
that lack of physical activity does not make you fat, but it does reduce your
caloric needs.
However,
physical activity, and regular exercise is quite healthy. It increases life expectancy, and
results in greater strength and endurance and a higher quality of life. Nevertheless, it should be kept in mind
that for most people it is not feasible to lose weight by becoming physically
active, even if you engage in highly vigorous exercise. For example, if you jog, run or walk 3
miles, you might burn up about 300 or 400 calories. If you do this three or four times a
week, in theory it might result in a 2 or 3 pound
loss of weight each month. However,
this will not necessarily result in a weight reduction for most people, unless
they are on a strict diet, because the exercise may stimulate the
appetite. Any calories that are
consumed after jogging or walking 3 miles can be easily gained back by a jelly
doughnut, a couple of bottles of soda, an ice cream pop, a candy bar, or
slightly larger meals. For some
individuals, their exercise program may result in significant weight increases,
if they do not control their eating habits, because exercise might stimulate
their appetite very significantly.
However, regular exercise, such as
walking or jogging 12 or more miles per week, can be a highly effective way to
lose weight when it is coupled with a properly designed diet that restricts
excess calories. That is, the ideal
way to lose weight is to combine strict dieting, with good nutrition, and a
properly designed exercise program.
Why The Theory Of Aging And Overweight
Fails
A common theory about overweight is it is caused
by a reduction in metabolism as we age.
However, many children, teenagers, and young adults are overweight in
the
In addition, the amount of reduction in
metabolism as a result of the aging process is relatively small. For example, if an individual in the
early 20s burned up or consumed 2500 calories per day, with the normal level of
weight, and a sedentary lifestyle, they would most likely burn up at least 2000 calories, (if not more) when they were in
their 60s or 70s, with the same lifestyle.
However, if they started an exercise program in later life, they might
very well burn more calories than they did when they were in their late teens
or early 20s, even in their 40s, 50s, 60s or 70s.
I have heard the argument (excuse) of aging and
reduction in metabolism applied to people in their 20s, 30s and 40s, which
would involve an even smaller reduction in metabolism than the examples
presented above.
Of course, someone could argue that the moderate
reduction in metabolism and physical activity relating to the typical aging
process, adds up. They may argue
that even a 100 calorie reduction in metabolism per day, can result in a 10
pound increase in weight each year.
However, this argument fails, because a small reduction in the
consumption of food on a daily basis would easily compensate for any reduction
in metabolism that resulted from the aging process. Slightly smaller portions of food
can result in a reduction of at least 500 calories a day. Alternatively, a small reduction in
fats and refined carbohydrates can easily result in a 500 calorie reduction in
calorie consumption. In many
cases the elimination of a single food, such as a jelly doughnut, or
mayonnaise, butter, or fatty bacon, would more than compensate for any
reduction in metabolism.
Thus,
the reduction in metabolism, associated with aging does not explain why people
are overweight in the
Why The Theory Of Genetics And Overweight
Fails
A
popular theory or excuse, about overweight is genetics, which fails to explain
the problem. However, it is true,
that each individual has different caloric needs, and some of this difference is related to
genetics. Many genetic factors
influence the amount of calories we burn up on a daily basis. This means that some people need more or
less calories than the average to maintain normal body weight. Some of the many factors that can be
partly a totally genetically determined in this regard are height, the quantity
and nature of muscle mass, and various metabolic factors that relate to
metabolism. For example, tall
people, with a muscular build, can eat significantly more calories without
gaining weight, then a very short person or a midget, with a slender muscle
built. However, there is no
evidence that short people, midgets, or people with slender muscle builts get
fat without over eating. In
addition, there are a large number of people who are tall or average height,
who are overweight.
Basically,
the genetic theory fails because genetic variations of caloric need are usually
not very extreme, and even when they are, they can
easily be compensated for by appropriate dietary adjustments. This is obvious, because many short
people and midgets are not overweight, and there are muscular and tall people
that are obese.
Why Fat
Cell Theories Of Overweight Fail
There
are many theories that are based on the quantity of fat cells. These theories usually state that people
are overweight because they have many fat cells. No doubt, some people have more fat
cells, than the average. However,
the number of fat cells does not make you overweight. Fat cells cannot create mass in the
form of fat from nothing. There
is a fundamental law (scientifically proved principal) in physics called the
conservation of matter, which essentially states that matter cannot be created
out of nothing. This applies
to the human body, fat cells, and the accumulation of excessive weight. Thus, the fat cells store the excess
calories from overeating, in the form of fat. Regardless of the number of fat cells
you have, you will become overweight, if you take in more calories than you
need for daily functioning. If your
fat cells are not adequate in quantity to store the extra fat, your body will
produce additional fat cells.
The
way the fat cells, or fat, is distributed on the body can be problematic for
some people. Some individuals have
a tendency to accumulate fat in certain portions of their body, such as their
stomach. This does not in any way
increase their weight, without over eating, but it can be unattractive. For example, some people are only 10
pounds overweight, and much of the excess weight is on the belly, with the rest
of the body relatively thin. There
are individuals that have excess fat evenly distributed throughout the body,
and if they are 10 pounds overweight it may not be apparent to others.
Unattractive
fat distribution can sometimes be a problem for people of average weight, and
thin people. This can involve an individual
that has a protruding belly, who is normal weight or slightly underweight. This problem usually cannot be solved by
a reduction in calories, because it will result in underweight, which can also
be a medical problem. However, the
adverse distribution of fat probably does not have any adverse health
consequences, assuming the individual does not become overweight, but for some
individuals it may cause social or psychological difficulties. This might justify medical treatment for
the difficulty, involving techniques that remove fat cells from specific
sections of the body, such as liposuction.
What Are
The Real Causes Of Overweight In The Developed Countries?
There
are two related causes for the problem of overweight in the
The
first problem involves eating an excessive quantity of food, or over
eating. In the developed countries,
there are no food shortages, and almost everyone has adequate financial
resources to over eat if they want to.
People also have difficulties in controlling the quantity of food they
eat, because food is available everywhere.
There are huge numbers of restaurants, cafeterias, fast food facilities,
candy stores, street vendors selling food, and supermarkets and grocery stores
with a huge variety of food, including snacks. All of the above makes it very easy to
over eat, and very difficult to maintain a proper caloric intake.
A
major cause of over eating and excess fat accumulation is repetitive
snacking. Many people do not over
eat during regular meals, but periodically takes snacks throughout the day. Unfortunately, many of the foods we
consume as snacks contain a great deal of calories. Three snacks throughout the day can
easily result in an additional 900 to 1200 calories a day. Keep in mind that even an additional 100 calories a day can result in
approximately 10 pounds of additional weight per year.
The
other problem, the type of food is probably worse than the first problem. Many people in the developed countries
have an excessive intake of fatty foods, including foods that are prepared with
butter, margarine, and oil.
Actually, fatty foods by themselves do not make a person
overweight. The problem with fatty
foods is: a small volume is high in calories. For example, a 500 calorie hamburger,
has little volume, and it can be consumed in a few minutes, with perhaps a dozen
or two mouthfuls. An apple that has
approximately the same volume as the hamburger is roughly about 60 calories and
it can be consumed in a few minutes.
It is very easy to consume 1000 calories of hamburger in one hour. It would be quite unappetizing, and very
difficult, to consume 1000 calories of apples even in one day.
Keep
in mind I am using hamburgers and apples as examples, and this concept applies
to many foods.
Foods
that are composed of refined carbohydrates present a similar problem as the
fatty foods mentioned above. A tiny
snack, such as a small piece of candy or cake, can be 400 calories. It is very easy to eat several
hamburgers or other fatty foods, coupled with several pieces of cake or candy
throughout the day. Most people only
need about 2000 to 2500 calories a day.
However, the hamburgers, and the several pieces of candy, coupled with
other meals throughout the day, can easily exceed 3000 calories.
Thus,
the cause of overweight and obesity in the developed countries is over eating,
and the excessive consumption of foods that are very high in calories.
JUNK FOODS, FATTENING FOODS AND LOW-CALORIE FOODS
Why Are
Junk Foods A Major Health Problem
Junk
foods are foods that have a great deal of fat and/or carbohydrates, in a relatively
small volume, and they may not contain an adequate amount of other
nutrients. Junk foods by themselves
actually will not make you fat, or get you sick. A small quantity of junk food can
actually be part of a healthy well-balanced diet, at least in theory. The reason for this is, the fats and
carbohydrates comprising junk foods are nutrients. However, junk foods become a health
problem, when the calories they supply are unneeded, which is often the
case.
Because
of the highly concentrated source of calories, in junk foods, it is easy to
consume them in excess quantities, and gain excessive weight. In addition, people that consume large
quantities of certain types of junk foods, especially pastries, and candy, may
not consume an adequate amount of some of the essential nutrients needed for
good health. That is, pastries and
candy, and many other junk foods do not contain many of the needed vitamins and
minerals, and they may curb the appetite.
This can eliminate the desire to eat the foods that do provide the
needed nutrients, such as fruits and vegetables.
Foods have
varying levels of caloric density, which can be measured in calories per
volume. For example, milk is 20
calories per fluid ounce, and vegetable oil is approximately 240 calories per
fluid ounce. When many foods in the
diet are of high calorie density, it is very easy to consume an excess number
of calories per day, and vice a versa.
That is if your diet primarily consists of foods of low caloric density,
you will find it difficult and unappetizing to consume excess calories. The high caloric density diet
consists of a relatively small volume, which means you can eat very little, and
still consume an excessive number of calories. A low caloric density diet means you
can eat large quantities of food, in terms of volume, and not exceed your
caloric needs.
Usually,
a high caloric density diet involves fatty foods, large amounts of oil,
mayonnaise, butter or margarine, which may be coupled with foods prepared with
refined carbohydrates, such as sugary desserts, cakes and candies. A low caloric density diet may consist
of a large quantity of fruits and vegetables, with lean meats, with a fat
intake of no more than 25 or 30% of the daily calorie allowance. Most of the volume comprising a low
caloric density diet is water and roughage encased in the cells of fruits and
vegetables. In general, with the
high caloric density diet, it is easy to eat excessively, and with the low
caloric density diet, it is very difficult to over eat.
However,
it is important to understand that a high caloric density diet does not lead to
overweight, unless you over eat. If
you eat small quantities of very fattening foods, and you do not exceed your
daily caloric needs you will not gain weight. In theory, you can even lose excess
weight on a diet that has a very high caloric density, but the volume of food
you consume will have to be quite small.
However, a good diet from a practical perspective (for most people) is a
low caloric density diet, with a large amount of fruits and vegetables.
EXAMINING
THE PROBLEM OF OVERWEIGHT FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF HABITS
Eating habits
Eating habits are the primary cause of overweight
in the
Poor Exercise Habits Or Sedentary Habits
Poor exercise habits or sedentary habits can
contribute to the problem of overweight, but as previously stated, lack of
exercise does not cause overweight, unless
you overeat. Typical habits
in the developed countries involve the use of automobiles, even for short
distances. Sitting and watching
television, or working or playing with a computer for hours, are typical in the
When many people begin exercise programs, they
are faced with conflicting feelings, because of their sedentary habits. It is common, for people to give up
their exercise program, and dieting, as soon as they experience some
discomfort, or are distracted by various life events.
The Solution To The Problem Of Overweight
And Obesity
The solution to overweight or obesity is the
development of healthy eating and exercise habits. This should involve eating a
well-balanced diet, with many fruits and vegetables, coupled with an exercise
program that is appropriate for your physical condition. For most people, the exercise program
should involve walking or jogging at least 12 miles a week, or more.
For more information on developing healthy eating
and exercise habits see Chapter 17, 18, 20 in this book, and consult the
following list of websites.
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/obesity/resources.htm words on website: Center for Disease
Control and PreventionGeneral
Information About Weight, Nutrition, and Health Weight
Loss and Maintenance Education
and Research Childhood
Overweight and Obesity
http://www.webmd.com/diet/default.htm Words on website:
WebMD
http://www.webmd.com/diet/evaluate-latest-diets Words on
website: Which diet is right
for you? Get the facts on popular diet plans to help you decide
Center for
disease control physical exercise and weight reduction
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/physical/everyone/health/index.htm Physical Activity and Health
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/physical/growing_stronger/why.htm
Words on website: Why Strength Training?
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/501375_5 Words on
website: The optimal amount of physical activity necessary for weight loss,
maintenance of weight, and prevention of weight gain is unknown, and likely
differs for each person depending on caloric intake and phenotypic expression.
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/pubs/bibs/topics/weight/consumer.html
Food and
61 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 20 Health, Exercise And Related Concepts
THE HEALTH BENEFITS OF
THREE CATEGORIES OF EXERCISE, EACH PROVIDING ITS OWN UNIQUE HEALTH BENEFITS
Introductory Ideas: Everyone Seems To Agree That Appropriate Exercise
Is Healthy
Amongst medical experts, as well as laypeople,
there are many diverse opinions about what is healthy and what is not. There are disagreements about diet,
vitamin pills, optimum weight, and treatment methods for various diseases. There appears to be at least some
disagreement about almost everything that relates to medicine and health. However, I have not noticed very much
disagreement about exercise. Almost
every source that I have read, and everyone I know, including physicians,
agreed that regular exercise is healthy, if it is properly carried out. The widespread agreement about the
health benefits of exercise does not imply that the subject is simple, or that
all exercise programs are healthy.
All of this will become apparent as you read this chapter.
Stretching, Resistance
And Cardiovascular Exercises
Exercise can be divided in to three
primary categories, which are stretching, resistance, and cardiovascular
exercise (or aerobic exercise). A
good exercise program incorporates all three of these categories, because each
performs a different function in relation to health. When the three categories of exercise
are incorporated into a regular program, they have a synergistic effect, on
health and the quality of life. I
will discuss these categories in detail under the following headings.
Flexibility and
When stretching exercises are
performed regularly, they gradually increase the flexibility and range of
motion of the portion of the body that is exercised. The muscles in the arms, legs, thighs,
back, neck, can be stretched to varying degrees. In general, most of the muscles under
voluntary control and their ligaments can benefit from stretching exercises,
with a resulting increase in flexibility.
The increase in flexibility reduces the chances of sprains, backaches,
and injuries from slipping or falling.
For example, if your muscles in your back are suddenly stretched beyond their limits, you will have a backache. If your ankle muscles are suddenly
stretched beyond their limits you will have a sprained
ankle. However, if you engage in
stretching exercises you gradually increase the limits that your muscles and
ligaments can be stretched without injury.
When people with good flexibility fall they can quickly stretch their
arms outward, and manipulate their body to prevent injury. People that lack flexibility, cannot do
this, at an adequate level, to prevent injury.
In general, all types of physical
activity, including daily activities, become easier with the increased
flexibility obtained with stretching exercises. All of the benefits of stretching
exercises will increase your overall quality of life.
Some people are so inflexible
that they are unable to function optimally in everyday life. They may not be able to climb a ladder
to change a light bulb, sit on the floor, or even bend down to pick something
up, because of Lack of flexibility.
They might also get frequent backaches because of lack of
flexibility. People in this
category are likely to injure themselves, if they slip or fall. Most people have a little more
flexibility than the above, but not that much more.
It is important to understand
that a high level of flexibility and resistance to certain types of injury can
be developed over a period of weeks or months with stretching exercises. This would apply even to people that
have very little flexibility.
Another benefit of stretching exercises is it can make cardiovascular
and resistance exercises easier, and safer. In general, stretching most of the voluntary
muscles on a daily basis will increase your overall quality of life.
Stretching Exercises Do Not Provide The Benefits Of Resistance And
Cardiovascular Exercise
Stretching exercises do not
increase your strength, in terms of the ability to lift heavy objects. They do not increase your stamina and endurance,
and they do not strength in your heart either. However, if you want to increase your
strength, stamina and endurance, the stretching exercises will give you the
flexibility needed to perform exercises that will have such benefits.
Stretching Exercises Can Be Divided Into Two Categories, Static And
Dynamic
There are many types of
stretching exercises, which I am placing into two broad categories. The most common category involves no
movement during the stretch. These
exercises involve motion only to get into the stretching position. For example, if you are stretching
muscles in your leg you will raise your leg into the stretch position, such as
holding the leg out straight while raising it from the floor. Once the leg is in position for the stretch
the movement stops. This type of
exercise is static stretching.
The other category is dynamic
stretching that involves movements, which can range from slow to fast, and the
range of motion is great enough to stretch the muscles and ligaments. For example, kicking a leg upward as far
as it can go, and then down, while holding the legs as straight as possible is
a dynamic stretching exercise.
Stretching Exercises, And The Feel Of The Stretch
When muscles are stretched there
is a sensation of tension or strain, which sometimes can be mildly
uncomfortable. If the stretch is
very great, or excessive you may experience pain, which is an indication that
the muscles are being stretched too much too soon. The idea here is to stretch the muscles
gradually over a period of weeks and months, and to avoid pain. Thus, the level of tension or discomfort
is useful in determining the optimal degree of a stretch. A little tension or even a mild
sensation of discomfort means you are probably stretching adequately. No discomfort whatsoever is usually an
indication that the muscles are not being stretched significantly.
Stretching Exercises And Temperature
The muscles and ligaments are
less flexible when they are relatively cold. Doing stretching exercises with cold
muscles, or in a chilly environment, increases the chances of injury, and it
prevents you from stretching adequately.
Stretching exercises are best done when you feel a little warm, or even
very warm, but never when you feel cold.
In general, stretching exercises should be done in a warm environment.
You should stretch your arms,
legs, feet, and everything else that can be stretched. When you stretch, you should stretch in
different positions, for at least 15 to 60 seconds. For example, there are many ways that
you can stretch the muscles in your arms.
You can put your arms over your head, you can bend your arms backwoods
over your head, you can pull them down towards the floor, etc.
You probably already are aware of
how to do some basic stretching exercises.
If you want more information, consult the following Internet videos and
websites. The videos are especially
useful because they demonstrate exactly how to carry out the various stretching
exercises.
Internet Videos On Stretching Exercises
To view any of the following
videos click on the blue hyperlinks.
Search phrase with Google video: Stretching http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Stretching&hl=en&sitesearch=#q=Stretching&hl=en&sitesearch
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=405560594220158581&q=%E2%80%9CStretching+exercises%E2%80%9D&ei=T2I2SOypHY6y-wG839nfAw&hl=en
Words on website: Top 6 Stretching Exercises
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=878846103996033943&q=%E2%80%9CStretching+exercises%E2%80%9D&ei=HWM2SJz2C4r6-gHq0JzzAw&hl=en
Words on website: Stretching Warm Up for Fat Burning Exercises
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4184904439598969911&q=%E2%80%9CStretching+exercises%E2%80%9D&ei=uGM2SP_cOo6y-wG839nfAw&hl=en
Words on website: Stretching Exercises for the Hamstrings
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6586240562626110510&q=%E2%80%9CStretching+exercises%E2%80%9D&ei=ZmU2SL07j9L7Ad3IoOwD&hl=en Words on website: Stretching
Exercises for the Arms Before & After Weightlifting
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8661150542318626397&ei=MGY2SKzHHYTU-wGy77jmAw&hl=en
Words on website: Simple Stretching Exercises : Neck Stretching Exercises
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8140642688887148026&q=Stretching&ei=79Y2SJXaBp-i-wH64_zfAw&hl=en Words on website: Gymnastics Warm Ups : Straddle Stretching for
Gymnastics Warm Ups Gymnastics Warm Ups : Straddle Stretching for Gymnastics
Warm Ups
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7534918233628379662&q=Stretching&ei=Jtg2SLX6NYKY-AHg2bjnAw&hl=en Words on website: Aid Asha Marathon
program - Stretching clinic by coach Jonathan Wyner
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1026989809769533342&q=Stretching&ei=T9o2SLfSOoSM_QH57JjeAw&hl=en
Words on website: Dynamic Stretching
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8933885660522909893&q=Stretching&ei=wNs2SO6cEIja-wGc-_DUAw&hl=en Words on website: Fitness online with
Fitness Activator "stretch episode"
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7678930937729574008&q=Stretching&ei=xdw2SNiANaWk-QH5gZnwAw&hl=en
Word on website: Stretching
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7678930937729574008&q=Stretching&ei=xdw2SNiANaWk-QH5gZnwAw&hl=en
Words on website: Stretching - Upper Body
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8248284286608664301&q=Stretching&ei=c982SN_eOomc_AGMkunkAw&hl=en Words on website: The Ultimate
Flexibility and Stretching Program
28 min - Jul 28, 2007
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6065979151650214436&q=Stretching&ei=jOA2SJeJGYWU-AHCipDZAw&hl=en Words on website: Stretching and
Yoga. Again
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2847830415725128351&q=Stretching&ei=pOI2SL-NBoqk-wGA6szyAw&hl=en Words on website: Stop Sciatica
Websites On Stretching Exercises
There are
website links on this page that will not be verbalized {{Pause=
Search phrase with Google: Stretching
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Stretching&btnG=Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stretching/SM00043 Words on website: Slide show: How to
stretch your major muscle groups
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stretching/HQ01447 Words on website: Stretching: Focus
on flexibility
http://www.cmcrossroads.com/bradapp/docs/rec/stretching/stretching_5.html Words on website: Stretching and
Flexibility - How to Stretch
http://www.kidshealth.org/teen/food_fitness/exercise/stretching.html
Words on website: Stretching The Basics
of Warming Up
http://www.rice.edu/~jenky/sports/stretching.html Words on website: Stretching is useful
for both injury prevention and injury treatment.
http://www.lib.msu.edu/ergomsu/stretch.htm Words on website: Computer and Desk
Stretches
http://exercise.about.com/od/flexibilityworkouts/Flexibility_Workouts.htm Words on website: Flexibility Workouts
http://exercise.about.com/cs/flexibility/l/blstretch.htm Words on website: Lower Body Stretch
http://www.nismat.org/traintip/runner/stretch.html Words on website: Basic Stretching
Exercises
Search phrase with Google: “Static
stretching” exercises http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CStatic+stretching%E2%80%9D+exercises&btnG=Google+Search
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/stretch.htm Words on website: Static Stretching
Exercises
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17909411 Words on website: Exercise and Sport
Science Department, Brigham Young University-Hawaii, Laie, HI,
http://www.pponline.co.uk/encyc/0203.htm Words on website: Stretching
Flexibility Exercises 1
Search phrase with Google: “Dynamic
stretching” exercises http://www.google.com/search?q=%E2%80%9CDynamic+stretching%E2%80%9D+exercises&btnG=Search&hl=en&sa=2
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/dynamic.htm Words on website: Dynamic Stretching
Exercises
http://orgs.jmu.edu/strength/JMU_Summer_2000_WebPage/JMU_Summer_2000_Sections/9_summer_dynamic_flexibilty.htm Words on website: Dynamic Flexibility
and Mobility
http://orgs.jmu.edu/strength/JMU_Summer_2000_WebPage/JMU_Summer_2000_Sections/8_Summer_Flexibility_Intro.htm Words on website: Flexibility
Development
http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/dynamic-stretches.html Words on website: Dynamic Stretches
& Stretching Routine
http://www.acc.co.nz/injury-prevention/sport-safety/acc-sportsmart/warm-up-cool-down-and-stretch/dynamic-stretches/index.htm Words on website: Dynamic stretches
http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:3xo7oO7B9GgJ:www.nwkickers.org/assorted/Dynamic_Stretching_Exercises.pdf+%E2%80%9CDynamic+stretching%E2%80%9D+exercises&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=19&gl=us
Words on website: Dynamic
Stretching Exercises
http://www.allaboutstretching.com/dynamic-stretching.html
Words on website: Dynamic Stretches as Part of Your Exercise Routine
62 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Resistance exercises involve moving against a force,
or pushing or pulling with or without movement. Weight lifting, push-ups, and pull-ups are
examples of resistance exercises.
Working out with any exercise device, that involves stimulating the
muscles with a significant level of pushing or pulling is a resistance
exercise, even if there is no movement involved.
Resistance exercises can be placed
in two broad categories, which are dynamic resistance, and static
resistance. Weight lifting and
push-ups are examples of dynamic resistance exercises. Exercises that involve pulling on
springs, or elastic bands, and releasing the tension and pulling again, in a
series of repetitions, are also examples of dynamic resistance exercises. Any time you are pushing or pulling on
anything and there is movement because of the force you are applying, the
exercise is dynamic resistance.
The static resistance exercises
are generally called isometrics.
Pushing, or pulling with significant force, without any movement is an
isometric exercise. Exercises of
this type can involve pulling on a spring and when it is stretched out the
movement is stopped, and the stretch spring is usually held in position for
several seconds. Lifting a
relatively heavyweight, and holding it in a static position for several seconds
a longer, is also a type of isometric exercise. Pushing against a wall is another
example of an isometric exercise.
Contracting any set of muscles in your legs, arms, or any part of your
body, without movement is isometric exercise.
Resistance Exercises Can Be Classified From A Continuums From Dynamic
To Static
Actually, the concept of dynamic
and static resistance exercise can be thought of as a continuum, ranging from
muscle movements that are very large, medium, small, and zero. Zero is no movement, which is an
isometric exercise. Some examples
will clarify the concept of a continuum, which are presented in the following
paragraphs.
If you are exercising your arms
with a weight, you can lift it with both arms from the floor to over your head,
which is obviously an example of a large movement. An example of a medium movement is
holding the weight in your hands and lifting it up word. An example of zero movement, or
isometrics, is raising the weight with both hands to the level of your chin,
and then maintaining the weight at chin level, without any movement, as long as
you can.
A Continuum Of Speed In Relation To Resistance
Exercises
Speed is also an important
factor with resistance exercises.
This can be represented as a continuum ranging from movements that are
very-fast, fast, medium, slow, very slow.
Usually, it is necessary to use lower levels of resistance when the
speeds are fast. A greater level of
resistance can be used when speeds are slow. Some examples will clarify this concept. If you are exercising with a light pair
of dumbbells, to obtain a good workout you would have to move them very
rapidly. With a heavier set of
dumbbells, you probably could not move them as rapidly, but you could get a
good workout by moving them slower.
With a very heavy set of dumbbells, you may have to carry out most of
the movements very slowly, but you would still get a good workout.
A Continuum Of The Number Of Repetitions In
Relation To Resistance Exercises
The number of repeated movements
(or repetitions) carried out, without stopping, with resistance exercises, can be
represented in terms of a continuum, ranging from a large number of movements
to a few, to one movement.
Generally, many repetitions can be done with low levels of resistance,
such as light weights with more than 40 repetitions. Higher levels of resistance, such as
medium weights might involve 10 to 15 repetitions. Very high levels of resistance, such as
very heavy weights, might involve one to five repetitions.
Understanding The Continuum
Concepts Presented Above Can Be Useful When Planning An Exercise Program
The
concepts presented above, involving continuums, and the related insight, might
be very useful when designing an exercise program. The examples in the following paragraphs
will provide further clarification.
Exercising
at a fast rate of speed, with a low level of resistance, such as with light
dumbbells, can produce a good workout.
This is assuming that you are moving the weights fast enough to put a
significant strain on your muscles.
This type of resistance exercise will have some cardiovascular benefits,
and it will increase the endurance of your arms, and your entire body to some
degree. In addition, exercising
with light weights is usually safer than exercising with heavy weights.
Exercising
with low to moderate levels of resistance, such as light to medium weights at a
very slow speed can also provide a good workout. This is assuming that you are moving the
weights slow enough and they are heavy enough to put significant strain on your
muscles. This type of exercise
involves moving the weights very slowly at points where there is a maximum
strain on the muscles.
Exercising
with high to very high levels of resistance, such as heavy to very heavy
weights has some significant advantages over light to medium weights, in terms of
building muscle mass. The
disadvantage of heavy to very heavy levels of resistance is risks of
injury. This is especially the case
with heavy weights, where a loss of balance or control can result in sprains,
and other damage to the body if the weight is dropped.
For
more information on resistance, exercises consult the following Internet videos
and websites.
Internet Videos On Resistance Exercises
Search phrase with Google video: Resistance Exercises
http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Resistance%20exercises&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#q=Resistance%20Exercise&hl=en&sitesearch=
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Resistance%20exercises&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#q=Resistance%20Exercise&hl=en&sitesearch Words on website: Back and Chest
resistance exercises
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3475680912650464388&q=Resistance+Exercise&ei=qDA3SKSmD4im-QGe8vXwAw&hl=en
Words
on website: Liederman chest press dynamic self resistance exercise
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6436389033741457079&q=Resistance+Exercise&ei=OzE3SNWoGIui-wHuvfXyAw&hl=en Words on website: Learn how to do bicep
curls with a resistance band in this free exercise and physical fitness video.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7777624695382754195&q=Resistance+Exercise&ei=AjI3SJOrLYmc_AGMkunkAw&hl=en Words on website: Learn how to do bicep
curls without a resistance band in this free exercise and physical fitness
video.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5278061797638402140&q=Resistance+Exercise&ei=fDM3SNuVF4WU-AHCipDZAw&hl=en Words on website: Training Resistance
Bands Alternative Exercise
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=567924958049764878&q=Resistance+Exercise&ei=PTQ3SJXVAYv8-gGVvZXVAw&hl=en Words on website: Exercise routine
with resistance bands
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8986462468273996198&q=Resistance+Exercise&ei=uDQ3SN_LFov8-gGVvZXVAw&hl=en
Words on website: Best Resistance Band Exercises
Search phrase with Google video: Weights and
Exercise http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Weights+and+Exercise&hl=en&sitesearch=#
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=7326278477487036789&q=Weights+and+Exercise&ei=l0w3SNvkKYvu-wGkjPHmAw&hl=en Words on website: Weight Lifting
Exercises for Beginners : Dumbbell Biceps Curl Weight Lifting Exercise for
Beginners
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=81993964607503769&q=Weights+and+Exercise&ei=E003SNT5MZD6-wGC67DrAw&hl=en Words on website: Weight Lifting
Exercises for Beginners : Lateral Raise Weight Lifting Exercise for Beginners
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1627395744288513832&q=Weights+and+Exercise&ei=C043SOrsHKGE_AHHlrjuAw&hl=en Words on website: Weight Lifting
Exercises for Beginners : Learn the Dumbbell Shoulder Press Weight Lifting
Exercise
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5601467480863524611&q=Weights+and+Exercise&ei=gE83SMKOJYj6-gH-8M3jAw&hl=en Words on website: Check out our featured
video reviews - made by product owners!
Search phrase with Google video: Words on website: “Isometric
exercises” http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CIsometric%20exercises%E2%80%9D&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv#
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4092659698695353342&q=%E2%80%9CIsometric+exercises%E2%80%9D&ei=YM44SM6KL5P0-gGssdXYAw&hl=en
Words
on website: Core Muscle Exercise Workout : Isometric Exercises for the Beach
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
Websites On Resistance Exercises
There are
website links on this page that will not be verbalized {{Pause=
Search phrase with Google:
Resistance exercises
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Resistance+exercises&btnG=Search This website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to
other websites. If you do not find
what you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will
appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
The following website is
excellent. It provides a huge
amount of information on all types of exercise. This includes dynamic illustrations on
how to perform various types of exercises.
http://www.exercisedb.com/
Words on website: Exercise Database The Largest Fitness Database On
The Internet
http://www.emedicinehealth.com/strength_training/article_em.htm Words on website: Resistance Training
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/33825.php Words on website: Ischemia training and
low-resistance exercise increase muscle endurance
http://www.sportsci.org/encyc/adaptex/adaptex.html Words on website: ADAPTATION TO
EXERCISE: Progressive Resistance Exercise
http://www.howtodothings.com/health-and-fitness/a3381-how-to-do-resistance-band-exercises.html Words on website: How To Do
Resistance Band Exercises
http://www.madisonchasefitness.com/ Words on website: YOUR GUIDE TO PERSONAL
HEALTH AND FITNESS.
Search phrase with Google: Weights and Exercise http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Weights+and+Exercise&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.exrx.net/Exercise.html Words on website: Exercise
Instruction
Search phrase with Google: Dynamic resistance
exercises http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Dynamic+resistance+exercises
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.scf.unifesp.br/artigos/optimal_length_rob.htm Words
on website: This article will provide you with a much different
way of thinking about building muscle
http://pt.wkhealth.com/pt/re/bjsm/abstract.00002412-200508000-00027.htm;jsessionid=L4GKlJy88G0rlp6LT6vlsF8B2pJyGlW0yJRMQGHk12PfMJV22k3W!939278529!181195628!8091!-1 Words
on website: British Journal of Sports Medicine. 39(8):565-568,
August 2005. Toraman, N F; Ayceman, N
http://www.springerlink.com/content/p4r6np1j3jbxx0ab/ Words on website: Department of Biology of Physical
Activity,
Search phrase with Google: “Isometric
exercises” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CIsometric+exercises%E2%80%9D
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isometric_exercise Words on website:
Isometric exercise From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://www.howtodothings.com/health-and-fitness/a3974-how-to-do-isometric-exercises.html
Words
on website: How To Do Isometric Exercises
http://www.sport-fitness-advisor.com/isometric-exercises.html
Words
on website: Isometric exercises, also known as static strength training
http://ask.yahoo.com/20001005.html Words on website: What are isometric exercises?
http://www.isometricexercises.net/g.php?C=4801803&D=898229&domain=isometricexercises.net&K=isometric+exercises&V=5168&K=isometric+exercises Words on website: Isometric Exercises
http://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/lifebalance/a/deskexercise.htm Words on website: Isometric Exercises
You Can Do at Your Desk
63 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
CARDIOVASCULAR EXERCISE
(AEROBIC EXERCISE)
Benefits Of Cardiovascular Exercise (Also Called Aerobics)
Stretching and resistance
exercises are very important, for good health and a good quality of life. These exercises can strengthen your
body, and make it easier and safer for you to do cardiovascular exercise. Cardiovascular exercise is especially
important because if it is done regularly and properly, it can reduce the risk
of heart attacks, and strokes. It
can also increase your overall endurance, and your ability to deal with the
daily stresses and challenges of life.
Cardiovascular exercise may also increase your life expectancy, and your
physiological ability to recover from certain illnesses. Overall, cardiovascular exercise carried
out regularly, can greatly increase the quality of your life.
What Is Cardiovascular Exercise?
Cardiovascular exercise is
aerobic exercise, or aerobics, which are movements that are carried out fast
enough, and for a long enough time to raise the heart rate to a relatively high
level. The movements, include
jogging, fast dancing, a gymnastic routine, and any exercise that can be
carried out long enough and fast enough to raise the heart rate to high levels.
When cardiovascular exercises are
carried out properly, it raises the heart rate to the maximum safe level
for at least 10 to 20 minutes. This
is a relative concept, and so is cardiovascular exercise in general, because
the maximum safe level for one individual may not be safe for another. For example, one individual might be in
relatively poor physical condition, and walking a mile or two brings his heart
rate up to the maximum safe level.
With this example, the walking is cardiovascular exercise. However, for an individual that is in
good shape, and jogged several times a week, the walking would not be
cardiovascular exercise. For this
individual, jogging, aerobic dancing, or a gymnastic routine, would be
cardiovascular exercise.
Shoes For Aerobic Activities (Cardiovascular Exercises)
One of the problems with most
cardiovascular exercises is the impact or stress on the feet and ankles. This stress can be reduced with proper
shoes, that have good cushioning.
For most types of aerobic activity, there are special shoes available,
such as jogging shoes, basketball sneakers, tennis shoes, and walking
shoes. Thus, the ideal shoes depend
on the aerobic activity, and more importantly on the nature and structure of
your feet. The ultimate determining
factor of the ideal shoes is shoes that produce the least amount of stress on
your feet, for a given aerobic activity.
Thus, theories about the ideal shoe are only relevant, if they hold true
for your feet and the way you perform a specific type of cardiovascular
exercise. However, usually, but not
always, more expensive high quality shoes, with very good cushioning, that are
made for the aerobic activity that you are doing are the best.
Clothing For Aerobic Activities (Cardiovascular Exercises)
There are also specialized
clothing for the various types of aerobic activities. However, from the perspective of
performing cardiovascular exercise, the only important factors as far as
clothing is concerned, is ease of movement and comfort. This includes, clothing that is
comfortable for the temperature or weather conditions that relate to the
exercise. For example, jogging
close in the summer should be very thin, and in the winter moderately heavy. With most types of exercise, including
aerobics, feeling slightly warm is okay, but feeling slightly chilly is not
okay. You should keep this in mind
when dressing for aerobic activities.
Another important consideration
in this regard is clothing that keeps the legs relatively warm. Very often, people engage in aerobic
activities in shorts, with the legs completely exposed. This is perfectly okay in very hot
weather, or in a warm environment indoors.
However, under other conditions it may increase the risk and level of
muscle strain in the legs, because when muscles and ligaments are cold, they
are less flexible, and more susceptible to damage. After jogging, and many other aerobic
activities, it is not uncommon to have muscle strain and mild pain, in the
legs. This level of muscle strain
might be reduced substantially if the legs are kept warm with clothing. Ideally, with aerobic activities the
legs should be very warm and sweaty, and the rest of the body mildly warm.
Many people dress for aerobic
activities in terms of precise styles.
This is perfectly okay, as long as the clothing adhere to the
requirements described above. The
style of dress can be quite important to some people, when aerobic activities
are carried out in a social environment.
This can involve an environment where people make new acquaintances, and
friends. All of this can make
cardiovascular exercise easier and more pleasant.
Music Can Make Aerobics (Cardiovascular Exercise) More Pleasant For
Most People
Music can distract from the
discomfort that may result from cardiovascular exercise. Music also can provide a rhythm or beat
that helps you pace your exercise.
Music is generally used in aerobic classes that involve aerobic dance
movements. It can of course easily
be used in any exercise done at home with no difficulty.
Music can also be used for
aerobics that are carried out on the city streets or in parks, including
jogging and walking, with a portable player and a pair of headphones. There are many types of battery-operated
portable music players, that are small enough to fit in a pocket. MP3 players are the ideal, because they
are extremely tiny, and very light, and they have no moving parts that can be
damage from the vibrations of exercise.
It is rather common to see joggers with headphones and portable players
exercising in
Music can even be used in the gym
or a health club, with certain exercises.
There are some exercises that involve machines where the headphone wire
can be tangled, and with such devices of course headphones should not be used.
In general, listening to music
with headphones, can present some risks.
The music and headphones can block out environmental noise, which
certainly appears to be desirable.
However, the noise can be from a car or truck, while you are jogging
across a city street. This might
increase the chances of being run over or killed by an automobile, unless you
are very cautious. The ideal
solution, is to remove headphones whenever you are jogging in any areas where
there is any type of traffic, from cars, trucks, buses, and trains. Even bicycles can be a significant
hazard. These hazards can also be
reduced by using headphones that are small and do not block out all of the environmental
noise. Setting the music volume at
a moderate level, so you can hear what is going on around you, will also reduce
hazards. Moderate settings whenever
headphones I used can also prevent ear damage.
How Often Should Cardiovascular Exercise Be Carried Out?
Most sources recommend at least
three sessions of cardiovascular exercise per week, with each session lasting
at least 30 minutes. This might not be the optimum level, and
the concept is more complicated than most sources suggest, because there are
many factors involved. I discussed
this in the following paragraphs.
If very vigorous exercise is
consistently carried out more than three days a week, it can have some significant
adverse consequences. It can lower
your energy levels, cause aches and pains, and even serious medical
problems. This is called
overtraining. The ideal for most
people is to carry out very vigorous exercise involving a specific group
of muscles, such as the muscle groups involved with typical aerobic exercises,
for three days each week. You
should separate these exercise sessions by at least two days, to ensure maximum
recovery. This ideally should be
coupled with four days of moderate to low levels of related exercises. An example will clarify this
concept. For aerobic exercise,
involving the muscles in the legs and feet, you can do vigorous exercise, such
as jogging, for three days a week, every two or three days. For the remaining four days in the week,
you can do slow jogging, fast walking, or aerobic dance movements with a
moderate level of intensity.
In other words three days of
vigorous exercise, and four days of moderate cardiovascular exercise is
probably the ideal for most people.
However, to engage in such an exercise program, it is necessary to
understand what vigorous and moderate exercise means. It is important to understand that
these are relative terms.
Vigorous exercise for one person might be dangerously stressful or excessively
mild for another individual. For
example, an individual that is very weak, with illnesses, and has not exercise
since childhood, vigorous exercise might involve walking five blocks in 30
minutes, and mild exercise might be walking two blocks in 20 minutes. The other extreme, is a healthy and
exceptionally strong and athletic individual who has been exercising throughout
life. For an individual in this
category, jogging three to 5 miles, at a pace of nine minute per mile, might be
vigorous exercise. Mild exercise
might involve running 2 miles in 20 minutes.
Ideally, your goal should be to
determine what is mild exercise for you, and what is vigorous exercise, for
you. To do this requires a common
sense self appraisal, coupled with a little experimentation, and trial and
error with the exercises of your choice.
It is important to understand,
what is vigorous exercise for you today will probably be mild exercise for you
in a matter of weeks or months.
However, if you are struck by illness, just the opposite might be the
case. What is mild exercise for you
today, might be vigorous exercise after an illness has struck, and during the
recovery.
When your exercise program is
interrupted by unusual circumstances, or illness, your physical abilities will
diminish to varying degrees. With
some illnesses, especially if surgery is involved, your abilities can be
reduced very substantially. Your
abilities may have deteriorated to the point where walking half a block in 10
or 15 minutes is vigorous exercise for you. This can easily happen during the early
stages of recovery. When your
exercise program is interrupted by psychological, social, economic,
occupational distractions, the loss of physical abilities of course will not be
as great as the above example.
It is important to understand
that in most cases, no matter how much physical ability you have lost, you can
probably gain it back with a proper exercise program. For example, it is common for
professional athletes to experience serious injuries that require surgery, and
their physical abilities may be reduced to the level of a physically disabled
person. However, after months of
exercise they are very often once again in top shape, and competing
successfully at the professional athletic level.
Unfortunately, most people do not
have the positive attitudes and motivation that professional athletes have, and
when they are struck by illness, it is common for them to give up exercise for
many months or even permanently.
They realize that because of their illness they have lost a great deal of
strength and physical ability.
However, they do not realize that in most cases, all of the physical
abilities that they lost can be gained back, in weeks or month by a proper
program of physical exercise. In
some cases, this may require medical assistance, including a well-trained
physical therapist. With a good
exercise program sometimes, people end up stronger than they were before their
illness.
However, there are medical
circumstances, where individuals lose certain physical abilities permanently, and
they cannot regain all of the strength they lost before their illness. This is not a good excuse to give up
exercise. Even when an exercise
program cannot restore all that was lost; it can usually greatly improve
strength, endurance, health, and the quality of life.
There are situations where a
medical problem can necessitate temporary or permanent changes in an exercise
routine. For example, joggers
sometimes encounter serious problems with their feet. In such a case, bicycling at high speed,
on a conventional bicycle or a stationary exercise bike would be a good
alternative in most cases. Doing
vigorous low impact aerobic dancing might also be a good substitute for the
jogging.
The important idea to keep in
mind is we all eventually get sick, and must stop our exercise program
temporarily. This is actually
almost a certainty, even if you have never been sick in your life. If you keep this in mind, you will be
ready to regain your strength and physical abilities very rapidly each time you
get sick. The idea to keep in mind
is that after an illness, you will have to regain your strength by
progressively increasing the level of your exercise sessions. This can involve slow walking for a
couple of blocks, which is gradually increased in speed and in distance, until
you return to your previous levels, such as jogging three miles in 30
minutes. Keep in mind that I am
using jogging as an example here, and the same idea would apply to any type of
exercise.
For more information on
cardiovascular exercise, consult the following Internet videos and websites.
Videos On Aerobics (Cardiovascular Exercise)
Search phrase with Google video: Cardiovascular
exercise
http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Cardiovascular+exercise+&hl=en&sitesearch=#
This website consists of one
or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8483826279614427292&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=JVI8SJPRFI7k4AL12sDRAw&hl=en
Words on website: Outdoor Cardiovascular Exercise: Sledgehammer Training
Video
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4730521983203115039&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=w1M8SOe2Hoai-QHgupDjAw&hl=en Words on website: Jumping Rope -
Cardiovascular Exercises - Cardio Workouts
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2948052943008503629&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=_VQ8SJaWFo_0-gHUvdjzAw&hl=en
Words on website: Cardiovascular Exercise, Muscle tissue, Muscle Mass #7
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8664785171447714504&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=ylU8SMPhKoKY-AHg2bjnAw&hl=en
Words on website: Phoenix, AZ Kettlebell Fitness Systems: Tabata Protocol
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8272883009562399771&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=EFg8SLbJBZSC4AKM4vXsAw&hl=en Words on website: Calisthenics -
Mountain Climber Exercise
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3431720413520825525&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=K1k8SPSpLZX84ALI0pjtAw&hl=en
Words on website: Fitness Training For Beginners : How To Do Cardio Warm Ups
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5478884227555780081&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&ei=GVQ8SOe-MpW05AKK56XnAw&hl=en Words on website: Cardiovascular
Exercise Gym Equipment
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5225514871394631317&q=%22Low+impact+aerobics%22&ei=1b46SNCKJIL6-gGt7eHVAw&hl=en
Words own website: How to Do Low & High Impact Aerobic Exercises
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4287665559910199172&q=%22Low+impact+aerobics%22&ei=ucI6SIqvAo_S-wHdyKDsAw&hl=en Words on website: Low Impact Aerobics
Part II
Search phrase with Google video: Aerobics http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Aerobics&hl=en&sitesearch=#
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box, after
you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4980685733567202686&q=Aerobics&ei=RFo8SKb4NZny4QKAgt3jAw&hl=en Words on website: High Impact
Aerobics
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5337108069905820865&q=Aerobics&ei=2Fo8SLONG6eg4ALgwuTSAw&hl=en
Words on website: Crystal Light Aerobics DetailsCommentsMore from userCrystal
Light Aerobics - 7 min - Apr 28, 2007
Search phrase with Google video: Low impact
aerobics http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Low+impact+aerobics&hl=en&sitesearch=#
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5337108069905820865&q=aerobics&ei=aOY8SMW8MaOqqwKN4NWhBA&hl=en Crystal Light Aerobics
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8990289265194267893&q=aerobics&ei=h-08SN7zM4OcrwKbnaiSBA&hl=en Aerobics Master Class 51 min
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4580408620668211826&q=aerobics&ei=ue48SLy7A432rQLlxpmYBA&hl=en SCVTV.com Jazzercise Aerobics
Workout Video /
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7860651263693587012&q=aerobics&ei=e-88SMGoM4jkrQLo8-WLBA&hl=en SCVTV.com Jazzercise Aerobics Workout
Video / Jazz Cardio Strength Stretch #5
29 min - Jan 2, 2008
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2213565209890402592&q=aerobics&ei=gvA8SL_dM4qWrwLnjrX-Aw&hl=en SCVTV.com Jazzercise Aerobics Workout
Video /
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3074896236659804574&q=aerobics&ei=IPE8SO7YEoWqrgKRheyUBA&hl=en Aerobics 1 18 min - Jan 24, 2008
Websites On Aerobics (Cardiovascular Exercise)
Search phrase with Google: Cardiovascular
exercise http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Cardiovascular+exercise&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.fitstep.com/Library/Info/Cardio_fitness1.htm Words on website: Cardiovascular
Fitness Basics
http://exercise.about.com/cs/exbeginners/a/begcardio.htm Words on website: Cardio exercise is important for a
healthy heart and weight loss.
http://circ.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/full/107/1/e2
Words on website: Exercise and Cardiovascular Health
http://walking.about.com/cs/fitnesswalking/a/cardio.htm
Words on website: Cardiovascular Exercise Principles and Guidelines
http://ezinearticles.com/?Benefits-of-Cardiovascular-Exercise&id=257189 Words on website: Benefits of
Cardiovascular Exercise
Search phrase with Google: Aerobics http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Aerobics
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.aboutaerobics.com/step-aerobics.html Words on
website: Step Aerobics Exercise
http://www.exrx.net/Aerobic.html Words on website: Aerobic Conditioning
http://bodybuilding.about.com/od/cardioexercisebasics/a/cardiobasics.htm Words on website: Cardiovascular
Exercise - Basics Of Aerobics For Fat Loss
http://www.aapsm.org/aerobics.html Words on website: What is Aerobic
Dancing?
Search phrase with Google: Low impact aerobics http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Low+impact+aerobics%22
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.diabetic-lifestyle.com/articles/mar04_burni_1.htm
Words our website: Low Impact Aerobics
http://exercise.about.com/library/bllowimpactcardioblast1.htm Words our website: Low-Impact Cardio
Blast
http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/exercisefitness/exer3108.html
Words our website: Aerobic exercise: low-impact
Search phrase with Google: Cardiovascular
exercise
http://www.google.com/search?sourceid=navclient&gfns=1&ie=UTF-8&rlz=1T4SUNA_enUS271US271&q=Cardiovascular+exercise
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://bodybuilding.about.com/od/cardioexercisebasics/Cardiovascular_Workout_Basics.htm Words on website: Cardiovascular
Workout Basics
http://www.fitstep.com/Library/Info/Cardio_fitness1.htm What is Cardiovascular Fitness?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobic_exercise Aerobic exercise
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7YEocMET4k Words own website: Low Impact
Aerobics
64 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
RISK REDUCTION AND
HEALTHY EXERCISE PROGRAMS
Reducing Chances Of Injury From Aerobics With Proper Shoes And A
Well-Balanced Exercise Program
Aerobic exercises can sometimes cause
injuries because of the impact it places on the body, especially the feet,
ankles, and knees. However, there
are ways of reducing this strain significantly. As was mentioned above, proper shoes can
reduce the strain and risks of injury.
A well-balanced exercise program, that involves a number of different
types of exercise, and every body part, including the arms, legs, and torso,
can also reduce strain and injury.
For example, if the only aerobic exercise you do is jogging, you are
putting a constant strain on your feet and your leg joints. This strain can be reduced
substantially, by substituting bicycling, rapid arm movements with light
weights, and various types of gymnastics, for a portion of the jogging.
Some individuals will do better
with an aerobics program that is primarily, or even totally, low impact. Low impact does not necessarily imply a
low-level workout. For example,
bicycling on a stationary or conventional bicycle, at high speed, can be even
more vigorous than jogging, but it is low impact. That is there is no pounding on the
feet, and joints of the ankles and knees, like there is with jogging, running
and Jumping. Low impact aerobic
dancing and gymnastics can also be done quite vigorously. Other examples of low impact aerobic
exercises are race walking, certain types of gymnastic movements, and any
vigorous activity that does not involve the pounding of the feet on the
ground. For some people, a series
of fast movements with light dumbbells, or even barbells, can serve as an
aerobic exercise. Working out with
light dumbbells can also include some leg movements, but it is a low impact
exercise providing you do not jump or beat your feet against the floor.
The Difference Between A Health-Orientated And An Athletic-Performance
Exercise Program
There is a substantial difference
between exercising to maintain and improve health, and exercising to achieve a
high level of athletic performance.
It is useful to understand the difference, because it will help you plan
your program.
Competitive athletes usually want
to make the quickest possible gains in strength and endurance, and to achieve
this objective, they are usually willing to take some risks. They may try to increase the intensity,
speed and duration of their exercises at the quickest possible rate, which
involves health risks.
Exercising to improve and
maintain health involves gradual increases in stretching, resistance, and
endurance exercises. The relatively
gradual increases can eventually result in a vigorous, but healthy and safe
exercise program. The goal here is
to improve the quality of life, health, strength, endurance, and
happiness.
Exercising to increase
competitive athletic abilities involves a different set of goals, which
generally is not focused on health.
People engaged in serious athletic training, at the amateur or
professional level very often have injuries, pain and suffering. This includes serious weekend athletes,
high school and college athletes, as well as advanced amateurs and professional
athletes. Competitive athletes and
coaches often take injuries for granted.
They assume eventually that the athlete will injure himself or herself
while exercising or engaging in the sport.
When human performance is
stretched to the higher limits, of physical strength, endurance and speed,
injuries are likely to result. This
is seen in top-level athletes, such as Olympic contestants, and professional
football and basketball players.
These individuals very often have a number of injuries during their
career. Their injuries often require multiple surgeries,
and extensive physical therapy.
When they retire, they may have permanent damage to their joints.
The idea here is not to lose your
focus when you are exercising. If
your goals are health-related, your primary focus should be to avoid
injuries. This should include
efforts to avoid excessive strain on joints. A balanced exercise program, as
described above, that exercises every part of the body, including hands, legs,
feet, and torso is the ideal, because it distributes the strain on the entire
body.
All of the above can be summed up
with the words: do not overdo it. However,
most people are inclined to under do it. It is common, for people to start an
exercise program, and as soon as they notice any discomfort, they give up. This usually poses far more health risks
than the professional athlete faces, or health enthusiasts that over do the
level and intensity of their exercises.
Generally, it requires a
considerable amount of motivation and effort exercises excessively. Usually, the body will stop you from
overdoing your exercise program, with various uncomfortable sensations. However, the ideal is to create and
carry out an exercise program that is right for you, without doing too much or
too little exercise.
Is There An Ideal Exercise Program That Is Low Risk, And Healthy For
Everyone? Maybe Aerobic Dancing
There is no ideal exercise
program that is right for everyone, because each individual has an unique body,
lifestyle, schedule, and likes and dislikes. However, the exercise program that
approaches an ideal for many people is aerobic dance movements that include
stretching, resistance and endurance exercises. That is with an ideally designed aerobic
dance program, all three types of exercises can be included. The stretching exercises can involve
dynamic stretching movements of every part of the body. Resistance exercises can involve
movements on the floor, where the body weight is used as resistance. In addition, it is possible to do some
aerobic dance movements while holding dumbbells. The cardiovascular component is obvious
with aerobic dancing. It involves
moving legs, arms, torso, head and neck in all different positions, at a rate
of speed that is sufficient for a good cardiovascular workout.
Some people cannot tolerate the
impact on their feet with some aerobic dance movements, such as jumping
movements. These movements can be
eliminated, if necessary, without interfering with the level of intensity of the
exercise program. You can do very
intense cardiovascular exercise without any jumping or jogging movements, such
as by moving arms and legs very rapidly without pounding the feet. In addition, fast sit-ups, push-ups, and
other movements carried out while sitting or lying on the floor can be
incorporated into an aerobic dance routine.
If you are interested in an
aerobic stance exercise program, you can easily devise your own routine that
involves, stretching, and resistance and cardiovascular exercise. The grace and overall appearance of your
body movements are not important from the perspective of health. If you are concerned about the way your
movements will look to others, simply do your exercise program in private.
To get started on an aerobic stance
program, just play some music and move to the beat. You can also use the Internet videos
linked to this e-book. Some of
these videos were listed in the previous section, but I will present them again
at the end of this subsection.
Many people prefer aerobic dance
classes, which work quite well for some individuals, especially when they first
start in aerobics program. However,
all aerobic dance programs do not necessarily incorporate the three categories
of exercise mentioned above, stretching, and endurance and resistance
exercises. This can easily be
remedied, by creating your own routine, to supplement what is not included in
your aerobic dance class.
Internet videos For Aerobic Dance Exercises
Search phrase with Google video: Aerobics http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=aerobics&hl=en&sitesearch=#q=aerobics&hl=en&sitesearch=video.google.com
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5337108069905820865&q=aerobics&ei=aOY8SMW8MaOqqwKN4NWhBA&hl=en Words own website: Crystal Light
Aerobics
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8990289265194267893&q=aerobics&ei=h-08SN7zM4OcrwKbnaiSBA&hl=en Words own website: Aerobics Master
Class 51 min
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4580408620668211826&q=aerobics&ei=ue48SLy7A432rQLlxpmYBA&hl=en Words own website: SCVTV.com
Jazzercise Aerobics Workout Video /
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7860651263693587012&q=aerobics&ei=e-88SMGoM4jkrQLo8-WLBA&hl=en Words own website: SCVTV.com
Jazzercise Aerobics Workout Video / Jazz Cardio Strength Stretch #5
29 min - Jan 2, 2008
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2213565209890402592&q=aerobics&ei=gvA8SL_dM4qWrwLnjrX-Aw&hl=en Words own website: SCVTV.com
Jazzercise Aerobics Workout Video /
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3074896236659804574&q=aerobics&ei=IPE8SO7YEoWqrgKRheyUBA&hl=en Words own website: Aerobics 1 18 min
- Jan 24, 2008
65 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
SOLUTIONS
FOR PROBLEMS AND EXCUSES THAT INTERFERE WITH REGULAR EXERCISE
Three Of The Most Common Problems Or Excuses
Many people start exercise programs, but they often
encounter a problem, or find an excuse to stop exercising. They may provide many reasons for giving
up their exercise sessions. Typical
reasons are I do not have the time, it is painful,
and I
do not like exercise. In the following paragraphs, I am going
to discuss these problems and related solutions.
How To Conquer The Problem of Time: I Do Not Have Time To Exercise
One of the most common reasons
for not exercising is lack of time.
The solution to this problem includes all of the following:
·
When traveling, try walking, jogging, or fast bicycling, instead of using
automobiles, buses or trains. If
the distance you are traveling is too great, you can use conventional
transportation for part of the trip, and use your own power to complete your
journey. For some people, walking
or jogging home from work is a good way to get exercise.
·
You can do various types of aerobic exercise, while watching
television. This can involve
jogging in place, exercising on a stationary bicycle, and/or various types of
aerobic dance movements.
·
Stretching exercises can be done whenever you have a spare moment. It is possible to do some stretching
exercises while you are talking on the phone, watching television, or while you
are at work.
·
Resistance exercises, can be done while you are watching television, such
as with dumbbells, and/or any mechanical spring device made for the purpose of
resistance exercise. This can even
be done while sitting on a couch or recliner.
·
You can do isometric
exercises almost anywhere, whenever you have a spare moment. It is even possible to do some quick
isometrics while working, even if you are employed with a desk job. This will involve brief exercises
lasting 10 to 15 seconds. Examples are pushing your hands together with maximum
force, pulling one hand with the other, or contracting your leg or arm muscles
without any movement.
Improve Your Time Management Skills and Your Daily Schedule, So You
Will Have More Time To Exercise
Another solution to the problem
of time is to study some material on time management techniques. Keep in mind that the goal is to save 30
minutes or more each day for exercise.
If you examine your daily schedule, and evaluate the way you actually
spend your time, it will probably be easy to save more time than you actually
need for your exercise program.
Sometimes tasks are unnecessary,
or they can be assigned to other individuals. Try to figure out ways of completing
tasks quicker.
One of the easiest ways to save a
considerable amount of time, is to reduce traveling. It is common for people to spend from
one to three hours a day traveling.
This time can be reduced by avoiding unnecessary appointments, and
substituting telephone conversations for face-to-face meetings. When ever possible arrange to have
people visit you for appointments, instead of you traveling to visit them.
Shopping trips can also consume a
lot of time including traveling, and the reduction of the number of trips you
make can save you much time. Buying
in large quantities, and/or shopping through the Internet can save much time.
You Can Also Save Time By Avoiding Health Clubs And Gyms
If time is a problem for you, you
should probably avoid health clubs and gyms. Keep in mind that any small advantages
provided by the machines in the health clubs are negated by the expenditure of
time. Usually, when people go to a
health club, it usually requires at least one hour traveling round trip, and
another hour dressing for the occasion.
When you get to the health club, it might require another 30 minutes to
one hour waiting for machines, and deciding which machines you want to
use. You might also spend 30
minutes a longer talking to friends and acquaintances at the health club. Sometimes people invest anywhere from
two to five hours to get 30 minutes of exercise at a health club or gym. This is why some people have little or
no time to exercise. If you do not
have extra time available avoid health clubs, and any other type of fussing,
and just start exercising every time you have a spare moment.
The above does not imply that
gyms in health clubs are undesirable.
If you have extra time, and perhaps a little extra money, health clubs
are great. The better facilities
have exercise trainers, and formal classes that can assist you in developing a
good exercise program. Many of
these facilities also provide a friendly atmosphere where people can socialize,
and make new friends and acquaintances.
All of this can make your exercise program more enjoyable, but all of
this requires much time.
However, you should keep in mind
that you can develop a good exercise program, and a healthy and strong body
with a much lower investment in time, without gyms or health clubs.
A good alternative to health
clubs and gyms is to purchase some of your own equipment. This can be very simple and inexpensive
equipment, such as a set of dumbbells and barbells. Many simple exercise devices are based
on springs, or elastic bands. These
devices are usually inexpensive, and light weight. They can be stored in a drawer, or
carried to work. A stationary
exercise bike, or similar device, might also be a good investment for you.
However, you do not really need
any equipment. Certain types of
equipment are necessary for competitive athletes, but equipment is not
necessary if your goal is to improve your strength, endurance, and health. The weight of your body is more than
adequate for most resistance exercises, and cardiovascular exercise can be done
with jogging, aerobic dancing, and many other rapid body movements. However, some people do better with the
basic equipment mentioned above.
The Problem Of Pain From Exercise, And The Solutions
There are a number of ways of
eliminating pain from exercise.
These techniques are easy to carry out, and I discuss them in the
following paragraphs.
To avoid pain start your exercise
program at a level that is significantly below your ability, and gradually work
up to higher levels over a period of days, weeks or months. For example, if you can walk 10 blocks
in 30 minutes, start your exercise program by walking 6 blocks in 30 minutes,
and gradually increase the distance that you can transverse in 30 minutes. This routine can eventually result in
the ability to jog 3 miles in 30 minutes or less, for some people.
The above concept applies to
resistance exercises also. For
example, if you can exercise with 10 pound dumbbells, start with 5 pound
dumbbells, and gradually work your way up to heavier weights, over a period of
days, weeks, and months.
Stretching exercises can also be
carried out in a way that is similar to the above. This involves stretching less than you
can, and gradually increasing the range of a stretch over a period of days,
weeks or months. This is advisable,
if you severely lack flexibility, or have problems with your joints. If you are reasonably flexible, and you
can sit on the floor, and easily get up, you may not have to be as cautious as
suggested above.
Stretching exercises can prevent
injury and pain when doing cardiovascular and resistance exercises.
Pain can also be reduced or
prevented by protecting your feet and leg joints with proper cushioning. For walking, jogging, and similar
exercises, proper cushioning is obtained with shoes that have good
cushioning. This usually involve
shoes that are made for the activity that you are doing, such as running shoes
for jogging, and walking shoes for walking long distances. When you are exercising at home or in a
gym, a rug or mat might provide protection for your entire body. For example, jogging in place on a soft
rug will absorb shock. For
exercises that are carried out while sitting or lying on the floor, rugs and
mats can provide some protection for the entire body.
Pains, and muscle and ligament injuries,
are less likely to occur when exercises are carried out when you are slightly
warm. When muscles, ligaments, and
joints are warm, they are more flexible, and less prone to injury. Keeping your legs covered and warm when
you are exercising outdoors can prevent pains in your legs. This is especially important for jogging
outdoors, which is usually done in shorts.
This might be a major contributor to muscle pain when the temperature is
below 70°F
You should avoid exercising when
you are sleepy or not fully alert, because this can result in muscle pains or
serious injuries.
When you start an exercise
session, you can reduce the chances of muscle pain, by exercising slowly at
first, and as your muscles and body get warmer, you can increase the pace. This is called warming up. Many sources also recommend that you
gradually reduce your pace toward the end of the exercise program. This is sometimes called a cool down.
A Solution To The Problem: I Do Not Like To Exercise
If you do not like to exercise,
your goal should be to figure out a way of making your exercise sessions
pleasant and enjoyable. This can be
done many ways, depending on your circumstances, and likes and dislikes. The
following are some of the ways that you can make your exercise program more
enjoyable.
·
Try doing your exercise with music that you enjoy. Ideally, this should be music with a
relatively fast beat. You can
listen to music anywhere you are exercising, with a portable player, such as an
MP3, and a pair of headphones.
·
Exercising while watching television or a video can make exercise more
pleasant for some people.
·
Try doing exercise with other people. It is common for people to walk, race
walk, and jog with friends. Another alternative is to take aerobic classes, which
will also provide the opportunity to make new friends and acquaintances.
·
Experiment with different types of exercise, with the goal of finding out
which ones you like the most, and which ones you like the least. Once this is achieved, you can develop an
exercise program that involves the exercises you like most.
Summing Up: Designing An Optimal Exercise Program
To obtain an optimum exercise
program, it should ideally be designed for the abilities, interests, schedule,
the work and home environment, and the lifestyle of the individual. Exercise trainers, and physical
therapists design programs that are appropriate for the individual's abilities,
but they might not adequately consider all of the factors mentioned above. When individuals design their own
exercise program, they usually are not aware of the many ways that a healthy
exercise program can be created.
They try to adhere to an exercise regiment that conflicts with their
preferences, and schedule, with willpower.
This usually results in failure, and this is probably why many people
give up their exercise program. To
design a good exercise program, all of the following must be considered:
·
Your physical abilities, limitations, and medical conditions
·
Your schedule,
·
Your preferences
·
Your overall life circumstances, and any other factor that might be
relevant to carrying out a healthy, exercise program that will increase the
quality of your life.
Miscellaneous Websites On Exercise And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: “designing
an exercise program” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9Cdesigning+an+exercise+program%E2%80%9D&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.ohsu.edu/health/health-topics/topic.cfm?id=8419
Words on website: Designing an Exercise Program
http://www.healthline.com/hlbook/art-designing-an-exercise-program Words on website: DESIGNING AN EXERCISE
PROGRAM
http://www.massgeneral.org/vascularcenter/index.aspx?page=programs_services&subpage=exercise Words on website: Designing an Exercise
Program
http://www.gwdocs.com/health/eHA-eHA_Content_C-Generic_Content_Page_Template_1131123695036.html
Words on website: Exercise: Before Starting an Exercise Program
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/chronic-pain/AR00017 Words on website: Exercise can be a
great way to ease chronic pain. Consider the risks of inactivity and the benefits
of movement.
http://www.exercisedb.com/ Words on
website: Exercise Database
http://www.exrx.net/index.html Words
on website: ExRx.net
66 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file of the following:
Chapter 21 A Practical Perspective On The
Sensations Of Fatigue
And Energy, And Sleep
CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF FATIGUE
(Note, some sources might use the word fatigue in
a less general way then I am using the term in this chapter.) Based on the way I am using the
terminology for this discussion, fatigue is an experience that makes it
difficult to perform physical or mental activities, and it includes sensations
of sleepiness, tiredness, exhaustion, low energy, or sensations of
laziness. Fatigue can range from
extremely mild, to very severe. At
the mildest level, it is associated with a slight desire to cease unpleasant work. At the extreme level of fatigue, it is
very difficult or impossible to engage in work or recreational activities.
Attempts to continue with any activity while
severely fatigued may result in poor quality work, accidents, and a great deal
of discomfort. This is because at
the higher levels of fatigue, mental and physical abilities, especially the
ability to concentrate, is impaired to varying degrees.
Based on the way I am using the concept, a
moderate degree of fatigue is normal, and it is experienced to varying degrees
on a daily basis. However, various
illnesses, and/or unhealthy or excessively stressful living conditions can
facilitate fatigue. Adverse life
circumstances that are lacking in excitement may also contribute to
fatigue. Illnesses, and/or
undesirable life circumstances can sometimes result in excessive fatigue
throughout the day.
You can reduce the chances of accidents, and poor
quality work, by avoiding all critical activities while experiencing moderate
to high levels of fatigue. Driving,
operating dangerous machinery, and even critical conversations with others,
should be avoided when experiencing fatigue. At high levels of fatigue, it is very
easy to make poor decisions. Some
people have a tendency to get into arguments when they are fatigue. This can include overall intolerance of
the shortcomings of others, when fatigue.
Becoming more aware of all of the above can
prevent many problems from occurring throughout your life.
Fatigue Can Be Divided Into Two Broad
Categories
I am dividing fatigue into two broad categories,
for this discussion. I am
calling the first category physiological fatigue, and the other inhibitory
fatigue. The first category,
physiological fatigue, is the result of various physiological stress factors or
limitations. This can involve
deficiencies of the chemicals needed to perform work, such as shortness of
breath after running quickly, low sugar level, weakness as a result of
dehydration, etc. It can also
involve varying levels of physiological damage, such as sore muscles, physical
illness, accumulation of physiological waste products, or excessively high or
low temperatures. If we use an
automobile as an analogy, physiological fatigue is equivalent to driving a car
with gasoline that has been contaminated with water, or a clogged carburetor,
or a damaged engine.
The other category of fatigue (which I am calling
inhibitory fatigue) is the result of various inhibitory mechanisms that are
activated in the body. This type of
fatigue might be called psychological fatigue by some sources. However, I am not using this terminology,
because inhibitory fatigue is often associated with short-term physiological
changes, such as variations in blood pressure, heart rate, and body
temperature.
Inhibitory fatigue involves physiological
mechanisms that are shutting the system down to varying degrees. Using the automobile as an analogy
again, this is equivalent to a driver reducing the pressure on the accelerator,
and slowing down or stopping the automobile.
An example of inhibitory fatigue is experienced
when people get sleepy as bedtime approaches, which is coupled by a reduction
in blood pressure and body temperature.
This will usually happen, even if the individual has rested during the
day, and does not really need to rest or sleep at the current point in
time. Another example of inhibitory
fatigue is experienced when there is little stimulation from the environment,
and/or when we are faced with a boring or monotonous task. This can result in feelings of low
energy or sleepiness, and related short-term physiological changes.
Very Often Physiological Fatigue And
Inhibitory Fatigue Are Activated Simultaneously
Very often both types of fatigue are activated at
the same time. For example, if an
individual was engaged in hard physical labor for many hours, she may
experience physiological fatigue, as a result of sore muscles. This can stimulate inhibitory fatigue
that results in sleepiness, perhaps several hours before the usual
bedtime. This type of inhibitory
fatigue might include the lowering of blood pressure and body temperature.
Inhibitory fatigue can serve the function of
preventing damage to the body. It
can prevent a person from overworking, and producing unhealthy or dangerous
levels of physiological fatigue.
Is Fighting Or Resisting Fatigue Healthy
Or Hazardous?
It is sometimes quite feasible to fight off
inhibitory related fatigue, especially if it is related to boring or monotonous
activity. Fighting off this type of
fatigue is more or less similar to pressing on an accelerator of an
automobile. In actual practice, this
can involve some exercise, such as moving arms and limbs to stimulate the
body. Ceasing uninteresting work
and engaging in activities you find stimulating, can also fight inhibitory
fatigue. Alternatively, performing
a boring activity in a more interesting way can also be used to fight off
inhibitory fatigue. For example, if
you are bored by housework, to the point where you feel somewhat lazy or
fatigued when you are confronted with it, you may be able to make it more
exciting, by timing yourself when you do housework. This involves changing the activities
associated with housework into a racing game. This can be done also with another
individual, where the game involves competition on who completes more work in a
given length of time. This of course
will not work for everyone, but the principle is to try to make boring and
uninteresting work more exciting and interesting by one means or another, to
minimize fatigue.
It is sometimes possible to reduce inhibitory
fatigue associated with a boring task, by changing the environment. For example, if you have an
uninteresting reading assignment to complete, you can do it sitting on a park
bench, or lying in a grassy field.
Tasks that you find boring and fatiguing can
sometimes be made more interesting and exciting if you do them with other
people. For example, doing homework
with other students might be more stimulating for some people. It might also be a more efficient study
method, if you can obtain assistance from the people you're working with.
Fighting off inhibitory fatigue, especially if it
is associated with lack of stimulation or boring activities, is not
unhealthy. However, this does
not apply to physiological fatigue, especially if it is moderate to severe. In most cases, it is probably not
advisable to fight off physiological fatigue. Physiological fatigue, by definition,
involves stresses that require rest or some type of restorative action to
eliminate the fatigue.
There Are A Number Of Healthy Ways Of
Reducing The Various Types Of Physiological Fatigue
There are several ways of reducing and/or
eliminating physiological fatigue, depending on the cause of the fatigue. For example, if the fatigue is related
to sore muscles from doing heavy physical work, the only practical solution may
be rest, and perhaps a reduction in strenuous activity until the muscle
soreness ceases. If the
physiological fatigue is related to shortness of breath, and lactic acid
accumulation, because of doing heavy physical work, such as shoveling snow, or
running quickly, the solution might be a few deep breaths, coupled with a short
rest period.
Physiological fatigue can also be caused by a
lowering of blood sugar. This can
happen, with prolonged exercise, or skipping of a meal, and from weight
reduction programs. This can
usually be corrected by drinking a glass of fruit juice, or other source of
quickly digestible carbohydrates.
High temperatures can cause physiological
fatigue, if it is prolonged. This
type of fatigue can usually be avoided by air conditioning, and or by wearing
thin clothing. Temperature related
fatigue can also result in dehydration, and this can be prevented by drinking
relatively large quantities of water, when faced with high environmental
temperatures. In addition, if you
are sweating excessively, increasing salt intake might reduce any fatigue
caused by loss of salt. However,
increasing salt intake should only be done when it is truly necessary, and with
caution, to avoid excessive salt intake.
Low environmental temperatures can also be
fatiguing. The solution is obvious,
which is the use of warm clothing.
Physical activity can also help keep the body warm when environmental
temperatures are quite low. However, when actually experiencing
uncomfortably cold conditions, and related fatigue, the only practical solution
is to get into a warm environment.
Each Activity Produces Its Own Unique
Type Of Fatigue
When most of us here the word fatigue we think of a generalized
sleepiness, coupled with a feeling of low energy, which may be coupled with a
difficulty in concentrating or doing additional work. In this section, I am not talking about
this type of generalized fatigue. I
am talking about a selective fatigue that affects certain portions of the body,
more than other areas of the body.
This type of fatigue is related to specific activities, and I am calling
it activity related fatigue. For
example, if you sit at a desk and read a book straight through for a couple of
hours, or longer, you may experience discomfort in your eyes, back, and perhaps
your legs also from lack of movement.
This is activity related fatigue that results from reading a book while
sitting. Another example is if you
are typing for many hours, you may feel some discomfort in your hands, arms,
and perhaps other parts of your body.
This is activity related fatigue that results from typing. Another example is, if you were sleeping
for many hours, you may feel weak, and very groggy when you awaken. This is activity related fatigue that
results from sleeping many hours.
If you been walking for hours, or hiking, you may feel discomfort in
your feet, and legs, and perhaps other parts of your body. This is activity related fatigue, which
results from walking. If you were
running very fast, your heart will probably be pounding, you may be short of
breath, and you might have sore muscles.
This is activity related fatigue that results from running quickly.
The important idea to understand is each activity
has a unique type of psychological and physiological impact on our mind and
body. The impact can be thought of
as a set of stress factors, which may initially be beneficial, or healthy in
some way. However, when the
activity is carried out continuously a point is reached where the beneficial
effects is reduced, or eliminated.
As the activity continues, it will eventually produce adverse results,
such as discomfort, boredom, sleepiness, exhaustion, and/or pains in various
sections of the body.
Each type of activity related fatigue has
essentially an antidote that is more or less an opposite of the activity. For example, the activity related
fatigue associated with sleeping, grogginess, can be counteracted by mild
exercise, which ideally involve the leg and hand movements. The activity related fatigue associated
with reading for many hours in a sitting position, can also be counteracted
with similar exercises, coupled with various movements of the eyes in different
positions. I will discuss this
concept in detail in the following paragraphs, because it has practical value
in reducing the various types of activity related fatigue that we all face in
our daily lives.
Activity Related Fatigue Associated With
Sitting Related Work And Its Antidotes
I am using the words sitting related work, to
refer to all types of activities that involve sitting and concentrating, such
as reading, writing, and working at the computer. These activities generally strain your
entire body from lack of movement, especially your legs and back muscles. In addition, your eyes, and neck muscles
will also usually be strain to varying degrees. Once this type of fatigue has said in,
it can be alleviated by stretching, a little walking, or some mild exercise.
Sitting related fatigue can also be prevented or
reduced by moving arms and legs while you are working, periodically changing
your seating position, and standing up every 30 or 40 minutes, and moving legs
and arms. Periodically closing your
eyes, and looking at distant objects for a few seconds might also reduce
eyestrain that results from sitting related work.
Sitting related fatigue can also be reduced by
having computer screens at optimal distances from your eyes. Large computer screens and large print
on documents may also reduce this type of fatigue.
Exercise Related Fatigue, And Its
Antidotes
Exercise related fatigue is just the opposite of
the above. It comes about from hard
physical work, especially if it is carried out over an extended period of time,
and/or if it is strenuous and very vigorous. Exercise related fatigue can be divided
into two categories. One category I
am calling aerobic related fatigue.
This is the result of prolonged moderate exercise, such as jogging 3
miles, or walking for an extended period.
Any type of moderately heavy work, performed for more than 15 minutes,
such as loading trucks, carrying heavy packages while walking, and even
conventional housework are examples of aerobic related fatigue, based on the
way I’m using the terminology.
The other category of exercise related fatigue I
am calling anaerobic related fatigue.
This type of exercise is experienced when the activity is vigorous
enough to cause at least some shortness of breath. This is generally associated with an
oxygen debt, and an accumulation of lactic acid.
The antidotes to both types of exercise related
fatigue involve sitting related activities. This can involve sitting in a comfortable
chair and reading, working with a computer, and other types of typical office
work that involve sitting.
Alternatively, relaxing while lying down, or going to sleep, will also
be an effective antidote to exercise related fatigue.
The quickest antidote for anaerobic related
fatigue is a series of deep breaths while sitting or lying down.
When exercise related fatigue is moderate to
severe, it might be beneficial to gradually reduce the intensity of exercise,
before engaging in sitting related activities, or before lying down and
resting.
Most of us experience at least some activity
related fatigue from sleeping when we wake up in the morning. We can call this sleep related
fatigue. This is usually associated
with a high level of grogginess, and it may be associated with the desire to go
back to sleep. However, if you have
already slept an adequate number of hours, additional sleep might make the
problem worse. This type of fatigue
might also be experienced if you lie down and rest for excessively long periods
of time, but it will usually be very mild, if you did not fall asleep.
This
type of fatigue, whether it is caused by sleeping or by resting while lying
down, is partly the result of the body turning down its metabolic
functions. This can include a lower
body temperature than during daytime hours, and an increase in blood carbon
dioxide levels. In hot weather,
sometimes a contributing factor to this type of fatigue is mild dehydration.
The
antidote to sleep related fatigue, or lying down and resting related fatigue,
is mild exercise, which can be initially carried out while lying down. This can involve slow movements of the
body, involving the arms and legs, while lying down. This should be coupled with stretching
movements, and ideally deep breathing.
This should be continued until you feel you have enough energy to stand
up. Then, you can move about the room,
waving and stretching your arms in the air, while doing some deep
breathing. The pace can gradually
be increased until you feel you are fully awake.
Taking
fruit juice, and having a very light breakfast, may also help reduce sleep
related fatigue.
Sleep
related fatigue, can be reduced by avoiding excessively long sleep
periods. For some people, breaking
their sleep into two periods, such as six or seven hours at night, and a two
hour nap during the day, might be a
feasible way of reducing sleep related fatigue.
Sleeping
in a well ventilated room that is comfortably cool may also help reduce sleep
related fatigue.
Activity Related Fatigue Associated With
Eating, (Especially Overeating) And Related Antidotes
When we
eat, the food must be processed physiologically by the body, which includes the
process of digestion. This requires
energy, and a diversion of blood to the digestive tract. When we eat a heavy meal, especially if
it involves much fat, protein, and carbohydrates, we will probably feel this
physiological strain in terms of fatigue.
This is especially the case if we ate food that is difficult to
digest. This can involve a feeling
of drowsiness, and/or desire to sleep.
When this type of fatigue sets in, the best antidote for most people is
resting quietly, or going to sleep.
The
fatigue associated with eating can be reduced or eliminated by consuming small
meals. For example, instead of
having three large meals, you can have six or more small meals throughout the
day. A solution that is more
practical for most people is to avoid large meals or fatty meals during working
hours. This can consist of a small
breakfast and a light low-fat lunch, coupled with a heavy supper in the evening.
For further information on fatigue consult the
following websites.
Websites On Fatigue, And Related Concepts
Search phase with Google: Fatigue http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Fatigue&btnG=Google+S
earch
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003088.htm
Words on website: Tiredness; Weariness;
Exhaustion; Lethargy
http://www.craighospital.org/SCI/METS/fatigue.asp Words on website: We’re
hearing more and more about fatigue these days
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/fatigue/HQ00673 Words on website: Fatigue:
When to rest, when to worry
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=9879 Words on website: Definition of
Fatigue
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/chronicfatiguesyndrome.html
Words
on website: Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/30433/description#description Words on website: INTERNATIONAL
JOURNAL OF FATIGUE
http://www.adrenalfatigue.org/ Words on website: What is Adrenal
Fatigue?
http://www.answers.com/topic/fatigue?cat=health Words on website: Medical
Encyclopedia: Fatigue
http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic3392.htm Words on website: Chronic
Fatigue Syndrome
http://www.cfids.org/ Words on website: CFIDS Association of
http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/325/7362/480 Words on website: ABC of
psychological medicine Fatigue
67 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Sleep
appears to serve a number of restorative functions, which counteract various
physiological breakdowns that happen as a result of wakefulness. This includes restoration of nerves,
muscles, and ligaments. A very
simplified example is, if you develop sore muscles during the day, your body
will have time during sleep without strain, where healing can take place. Without the mechanism of sleep, the
strain on the muscles may continue, to the point of injury and pain. Of course,
there are a large number of other restorative and physiological processes that
take place during sleep, which are essential to maintain life.
Even when certain restorative functions are not necessary, we become
tired and sleepy because of internal physiological timing mechanisms. For example, most of us will feel tired
as bedtime approaches, even if we happen to sleep during the day, and we do not
have strained muscles and ligaments.
However, if we do have strained muscles we may have an additional need
for sleep, to allow the healing process to take place.
The general principle is that wakefulness produces various types of
physiological stresses, which are counteracted during sleep. However, sleep also produces various
physiological stresses that are counteracted or corrected, during
wakefulness. For example, while we
are sleeping, sore muscles will have a chance to rest and heal, but muscles
atrophy during sleep. The bones and
heart also atrophy during sleep.
This is usually not obvious to most people, because the deterioration is
reversed during the period of wakefulness.
There Are Adverse
Consequences Of Excessive Sleep Or Bed Rest, Which Can Be Reversed With Exercise
Fortunately, the destructive effect of prolonged bed rest can be
reversed, with exercise, and the return to normal daily activities. However,
some individuals may never return to their full strength, because they may
believe it is a permanent physiological change that resulted from the illness
or the surgery they received. This
can happen when they do not engage in daily activities and physical exercise as
a result of their erroneous beliefs.
From the above it is apparent that excess sleep, bedrest, or even sitting
on a chair or couch, with little exercise, can be extremely destructive to the
human body. This raises the
question how many hours should you sleep.
At what point does sleep become excessive, destructive and
unhealthy? The answer depends on
your daily activities. For example,
if you sleep, or rest in bed, 10 or 12 hours a day, you are probably causing
physiological damage to your body.
This is especially the case, if you spend much of your waking time
sitting on a chair. However, 10 or
12 hours of sleep will probably not be destructive, if you are engaged in
vigorous exercise throughout much of the day, involving aerobic activities, resistance
exercises, (such as weight lifting) and stretching. For most people, seven to nine hours of
sleep is probably optimal, but even with these normal levels of sleep, there
may be some physiological deterioration that will accumulate over a period of
years, unless you engage in vigorous physical exercise.
The Amount Of
Sleep You Need Partly Relates To Your Sleep Efficiency
The number of hours of sleep that a person needs is greatly influenced by
how efficiently they sleep. The
amount of time an individual consumes lying in bed awake or half-asleep, versus
the amount of time spent sleeping relates to the concept of sleep
efficiency. When the amount of time
trying to sleep, but not sleeping is high, the sleep efficiency is low, and
vice a versa. For example, some
people might spend 12 hours lying in bed, trying to fall asleep, but they only
sleep 8 hours. This can be
represented in terms of mathematics with the following formula. Number of hours you are sleeping
divided by the total time in bed (which includes the time that you are
sleeping, and the time that you are trying to fall asleep) multiplied by 100%,
equals your sleep efficiency.
In conventional mathematical notation this is presented below:
In the
above example, of 12 hours in bed, and eight hours of sleep, the sleep
efficiency is calculated as presented below:
In
this example, the sleep efficiency works out to 66.67%, which is not very
good. Good sleep efficiency would
approach or exceed 90%
Low sleep efficiency can be a real problem, because it can result in
spending many hours in bed, trying to fall asleep, which can result in the
adverse physiological consequences of muscle and bone deterioration, as
discussed above. Many people that
suffer from insomnia experience this difficulty, which is discussed under the
following subheading.
The above suggests the problem of insomnia, which is a common medical
problem. The best solution for
insomnia is to employ all of the following strategies, especially if the
problem is severe:
· Go to bed at approximately the same time each night, and get up at about
the same time each morning.
· Try to consolidate all or most of your sleep during an eight-hour
period. This means avoid periodic
unscheduled naps during the day. If
you want to nap during the day, schedule a fixed time, such as from 3 p.m. to 5
p.m. To do this successfully may
require some willpower, practice, trial and error, and persistence.
· Measure the number of hours you sleep each 24-hour period, and recorded
in a diary. This should ideally
include the time you tried to sleep or nap and the time you get out of
bed. The reason for this is many
people who are worried about insomnia, actually sleep 8 or more hours, but they
lose track of the number of hours they sleep. Even when this is not the case, it is
useful to have an accurate record of the severity of the insomnia, which will
serve as a measure of improvements or deterioration in your condition.
· *Note: The simplest way to keep track of the total number of hours that
you spent in bed is to obtain an electric clock, with a plug. Set the clock at 12 o'clock each day,
regardless of the time, with the plug out.
Each time you lie down in bed plug the clock in, and when you get out of
bed pull the plug out. At the end
of the day the clock provides the total number of hours you spent in bed, which
should be recorded in a diary or on a calendar. This is useful in charting your
progress, and documenting the severity of your condition for your medical
providers.
· Do not eat or exercise for one hour or more, before bedtime.
· Develop an exercise program that fits your physiological abilities, which
should include cardiovascular exercise, resistance exercises, and
stretching. The exercise program
should be vigorous enough to reverse any problems that result from spending
excessively long times in bed trying to fall asleep.
· Study and practice relaxation techniques (These techniques are discussed
in a separate chapter in this e-book.)
· If you cannot sleep during bedtime, practice relaxation techniques while
lying in bed, with the lights out, which may provide some of the
restorative benefits of sleep. In
addition, it is likely that while you are practicing relaxation techniques you
will fall asleep.
· Seek medical assistance for your insomnia, especially if you cannot
resolve the problem on your own, or if the condition is severe. However, you should be cautious about
taking prescription drugs, and second medical opinions might be advisable, in
this regard. Nevertheless, for some
individuals various types of prescription drugs are truly necessary and
beneficial to treat their insomnia, or underlying medical conditions that are
causing the insomnia.
· For persistent insomnia, use experimentation and trial and error, to
solve your problem. This should be
done with knowledgeable physicians who are familiar with the details of your
medical history. This can involve
using medications, medical procedures, physical therapy, home remedies, and
self devised strategies on a trial and error basis, to find out what works for
you.
For
further information on insomnia consult the following websites.
Websites On
Insomnia, And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: Insomnia http://www.google.com/search?rlz=1T4GWYE_enUS266US267&hl=en&q=Insomnia&btnG=Google+Search
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/insomnia/DS00187
Words
on website: Nearly everyone has occasional sleepless nights, perhaps due to stress,
heartburn, or drinking too much caffeine or alcohol.
http://www.well.com/~mick/insomnia/
Words
on website: Insomnia techniques you've probably already tried but are still
worth trying again.
http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/insomnia Words on website: Insomnia is a
sleep disorder that is characterized by difficulty falling and/or staying
asleep. People with insomnia have one or more of the following symptoms:
http://familydoctor.org/online/famdocen/home/articles/110.html
Words
on website: Insomnia: How to Get a Good Night's Sleep
http://www.ucsfhealth.org/adult/medical_services/neuro/sleep_disorders/conditions/insomnia/signs.html Words on website: Insomnia 
Signs
and Symptoms Diagnosis
Treatment
Search phrase with Google: Insomnia clinics http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Insomnia+clinics&btnG=Google+Search
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.sleepnet.com/forum1/messages/1157.html
Insomnia and sleep clinics
http://www.sleeplc.com/clinic.php Words on website: Insomnia is
a disruption of normal sleep related to physical and mental causes.
http://www.sleeplc.com/clinic.php Words on website: THE INSOMNIA CLINIC
http://www.mdconsult.com/das/article/body/98196187-2/jorg=journal&source=&sp=16609861&sid=0/N/557413/1.html?issn Words on website: Cognitive-behavioral
Therapy of Insomnia
Search phrase with
Google: Treatments for insomnia, and physicians who treat
insomnia http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Treatments+for+insomnia%2C+and+physicians+who+treat+insomnia
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/40/17/30
Words
on website: Physicians Underprescribe Best Insomnia Treatments
http://insomnia.about.com/od/insomniaelderly/p/Insom_ElderCaus.htm Words on website: Insomnia
Overview
http://www.umm.edu/sleep/treat_insomnia.htm Words on website:
http://www.wrongdiagnosis.com/i/insomnia/treatments.htm Words on website: Treatments
for Insomnia
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of the following:
The Opposite Of Insomnia:
Excessive Sleep
Some people sleep excessively, and they experience an abnormal level of
fatigue or sleepiness during the day.
There are also people who simply sleep too much, for one reason or
another, and may not experience abnormal fatigue during the daytime. However, both of these situations are
potentially serious problems, partly because of the adverse affects on the
muscles, bones, heart and the body in general, that result from excessive bed rest. In addition, these conditions are often
associated with medical problems, which may have not been diagnosed.
The solution to
excessive sleep is all of the following strategies:
· The most important strategy for excessive sleep is to obtain medical
assistance. This is especially the
case if you have an undiagnosed problem.
This may require seeking medical opinions, testing, and treatment from a
number of physicians, until you obtain assistance that improves your condition.
· It may be necessary to use medically prescribed drugs and other treatment
for sleepiness, which may include stimulants. These drugs should be taken with
caution, and second medical opinions may be advisable.
· Do not take any stimulants without consulting knowledgeable
physicians that are aware of the details of your medical condition. Part of the reason for this is
stimulants can sometimes increase fatigue, or have no effect whatsoever,
especially when they are taken repeatedly.
This applies to over-the-counter stimulants, including the regular use
of coffee.
· Develop an exercise program that fits your physiological abilities, which
should include cardiovascular exercise, resistance exercises, and
stretching. The exercise program
should be vigorous enough to reverse any problems that result from spending
excessively long times in bed. This
is extremely important, because very serious medical problems can eventually
result from the excessive hours spent in bed, including heart attack and
stroke. This risk can be greatly
reduced or eliminated by regular daily exercise.
· Try to eat your meals at approximately the same time each day.
· Be certain that your diet is healthy, well balanced, and avoid excessive
fats, and refined carbohydrates. It
may be advisable to take a vitamin and mineral supplement, and to seek the
assistance of a medical dietitian to be certain that your diet is optimal for
your physiological needs.
· Try eating several small meals, instead of two or three large meals,
especially if heavy meals make you sleepy.
· Maintain proper body weight, because carrying excess body weight can be
fatiguing.
· Go to bed at approximately the same time each night, and get up at
roughly the same time each morning.
· Try to consolidate most of your sleep during a fixed time interval, such
as from 11 p.m. to 7 a.m. Napping
during the day might be helpful for some people with this problem, but ideally
the naps should be scheduled, or time-limited to prevent sleeping the entire
day. This generally involves
setting an alarm clock or timer to wake you up after a period of time, such as
30 minutes to perhaps as long as two hours depending on your needs.
· Measure the number of hours you sleep each 24-hour period, and recorded
in a diary*. This should ideally
include the time you lie down in bed.
This includes any naps you take during the day. The reason for this is many people who
think they are sleeping too much are actually not sleeping enough, or are
sleeping only eight or nine hours, but they lose track of the number of hours
they sleep. Even when this is not
the case, it is necessary to have an accurate record of the severity of the
condition, which may help with any needed medical treatment.
· *Note: The simplest way to keep track of the total number of hours that
you sleep is to obtain an electric clock, with a plug. Set the clock at 12 o'clock each day,
regardless of the time, with the plug out.
Each time you lie down in bed plug the clock in, and when you get out of
bed unplugged the clock. At the end
of the day the clock provides the total number of hours, you spent in bed,
which should be recorded in a diary or on a calendar. This is useful in charting your
progress, and documenting the severity of your condition for your medical
providers.
· Try to develop the ability to resist mild or even moderate fatigue when
you have already slept more than eight hours. Do this with caution, and consult a
physician that is familiar with your medical history to see if it is
appropriate for you. Part of the
idea behind this strategy is some people are excessively sensitive to normal
levels of fatigue that most people periodically experience throughout the
day. For some individuals who sleep
excessively, this may have resulted in the habit of going to sleep whenever
they feel even very mild levels of fatigue, or any other type of stress,
frustration or undesirable feelings.
· For persistent problems involving excessive sleep and/or fatigue, use
experimentation and trial and error, along with knowledgeable physicians that
are familiar with the details of your medical history. This can involve using medications,
medical procedures, physical therapy, home remedies, and self-devised
strategies on a trial and error basis, to find out what works for you.
For further information on excessive daytime sleepiness or fatigue see
the following websites.
Websites On
Excessive Sleepiness And Fatigue
Search phrase with Google: Excessive sleepiness
and fatigue http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Excessive+sleepiness+and+fatigue
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/narcolepsy/DS00345 Words on website: Narcolepsy
is a chronic sleep disorder characterized by overwhelming daytime drowsiness
and sudden attacks of sleep.
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/472869_23 Words on website: Sleepiness
in the Primary Care Setting
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O998-sleepiness.html Words on website: sleepiness
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/00223999/2003/00000054/00000001/art00542;jsessionid=fis47jl8k2g33.alexandra Words on website: Distinguishing
between excessive daytime sleepiness and fatigue – Toward improved
detection and treatment
http://www.psychiatrymmc.com/the-assessment-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-excessive-sleepiness-practical-considerations-for-the-psychiatrist/ Words on website: The
Assessment, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Excessive Sleepiness: Practical Considerations
for the Psychiatrist
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/526304/Sleepiness-and-Fatigue-in-the-Medical-Profession-Toughing-It-Out-Is-Not-Dealing-With-It Words on website: Sleepiness
and Fatigue in the Medical Profession Toughing It Out Is Not Dealing With It
http://www.annalsnyas.org/cgi/content/abstract/1083/1/329 Words on website: Obesity-Related Sleepiness and Fatigue
69 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
HOW TO DEAL WITH THE
Strategies To Feel More Energetic And Less Fatigued
The sensation of fatigue is normal and healthy, providing
it is not excessive. However, it is
possible for most people to reduce the level of fatigue they experience, and to
become healthier and more energetic in their daily lives. Some of the ways to do this involve
common sense, but some of the strategies are not so obvious, and I briefly
discuss them in the following paragraphs.
Most people need at least eight
hours of sleep to maximize their efficiency, energy and alertness during the
day. Some people will do better
with nine or 10 hours of sleep.
There are people that function better, if they nap during the day. This can involve 6 or 7 hours of sleep
at night, and a nap lasting for one to three hours during the day. If you do better with a nap, you should
be cautious not to sleep excessively, and sleep throughout much of the
day. The use of an alarm clock will
prevent this.
Sleeping or resting excessively
can reduce your energy level, and increase your level of fatigue throughout the
day. Excessive sleep or rest can
also be quite unhealthy, and it results in muscle, heart, and bone
deterioration, which of course will contribute to fatigue.
Maintain A Regular 24-Hour Cycle
Going to sleep, awakening, having
breakfast, lunch and dinner at approximately the same time each day might
reduce the level of fatigue that you experience throughout the day. This is because the body has various
internal timing mechanisms that involve physiological changes that take place
in a 24-hour cycle. For example, if
you suddenly change the time you go to sleep to a later hour, you might be fatigue.
Eat a healthy well-balanced diet
A well-balanced diet, with a large
variety of tasty foods will provide your body with all the needed
nutrients. This will reduce the
chances of developing fatigue from a nutritional deficiency. The use of a vitamin and mineral
supplement can also be helpful in this regard. However, do not expect too much
from vitamin and mineral pills.
They generally will not reduce your fatigue, unless you are suffering
from a nutritional deficiency that is corrected by the pill that you take.
One of the greatest causes of
fatigue during the daytime is the result of excessively large meals. Large meals put physiological strain on
the body that may cause fatigue.
This is especially the case with large fatty meals that are difficult to
digest. For some people, large
meals or snacks that are high in refined carbohydrates can also have a
fatiguing affect, if it interferes with proper blood sugar level. The solution is eating relatively small
meals, especially when you want to remain energetic and alert. If you want to eat larger meals that may
cause fatigue, you should do this when the fatigue will not be a problem, such
as after completing the day's work.
Excessive Body Weight Can Result In Additional Fatigue
Excessive body weight can result
in additional fatigue throughout the day for some people. Even if you are a few pounds overweight
it can result in fatigue, especially if you engage in any type of physical labor. For example, if you are 10 pounds overweight,
it might be significantly more difficult to perform housework.
Excessively Low Body Weight Can Result In Additional
Fatigue
Being underweight
can result in excessive fatigue, partly because of deficiencies in fuel to
perform physical and mental activities.
The poor eating habits that are often associated with underweight can
result in deficiencies in vitamins and minerals, and weak muscles, which will
also greatly contribute to fatigue.
Develop Your Body With An Exercise Program
A good exercise program, for most
people, involves 12 or more miles of walking or jogging each week (or any
exercise that is equivalent to 12 miles a week). This should be coupled with various
types of resistance training, such as with weights or springs that exercise every
part of the body. In addition, most
of the voluntary muscles should be stretched daily, especially in the legs,
thighs, arms and back.
Make Your Environment As Stimulating And Pleasant As
Possible
Do anything you can to make your
environment more interesting and exciting.
Sometimes just increasing the level of lighting can have a stimulating
effect. For some people, playing
music for at least part of the day can also be stimulating.
Try To Make Your Work More Interesting Exciting And
Pleasant
Try to figure out ways of carrying
out your daily activities in a way that you find pleasant, interesting,
stimulating and exciting. Exactly
how to do this depends on the activities you are faced with on a daily basis,
and your personal preferences, and other factors that relate to your overall
life circumstances. However, the
idea is to experiment with different ways of doing your work, to find ways of
making your daily activities more stimulating and interesting.
Seek Medical Treatment For Any Type Of Problematic Fatigue
Consult your physicians about any
type of excessive fatigue, to obtain diagnosis and treatment. There are many medications that can
contribute to fatigue, and if you are taking any drug that might be causing fatigue,
discuss this with your physician.
If they cannot find a remedy for your fatigue, obtain new medical
providers, who might be able to assist you. However, fatigue associated with medical
conditions cannot always be alleviated, but they usually can be reduced very
significantly with proper medical treatment.
Stimulants are sometimes used to treat certain medical conditions that
involve persistent and severe levels of fatigue. However, when they are properly prescribed,
by a skilled medical provider, they are used in a very controlled way, to treat
specific medical problems. When
stimulants are used in an uncontrolled way, the anti-fatiguing properties they
provide are only temporary, and the drug becomes ineffective over time. This can result in increases in fatigue,
and health problems. This even
applies to any over-the-counter stimulant, especially the habitual use of coffee,
and the caffeine it contains.
Websites On Sleep
And Related Concepts
Search phase with Google: Sleep http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Sleep Words on website: Sleep From Wikipedia
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/site/c.huIXKjM0IxF/b.2417141/k.2E30/The_National_Sleep_Foundation.htm Words on website: National Sleep Foundation
http://www.journalsleep.org/ Words on website: Sleep
Journal
http://www.medicinenet.com/sleep/index.htm Words on website: Sleep Index
http://www.users.cloud9.net/~thorpy/ Words on website: Welcome to the Sleep Medicine Home
Page
http://www.sleepnet.com/ Words on website: This is an educational site devoted
to improving sleep health worldwide.
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/sleep.html Words on website: Stages of
Sleep
http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/howto.html Words on website: HOW TO SLEEP
WELL
http://www.webmd.com/sleep-disorders/ Words on website: Sleep Disorders Overview
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sleep-disorders/SL00004 Words on website: Sleep disorders:
A to Z
http://www.sleephomepages.org/ Words on website: Sleep Home
Pages
http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/content/full/64/4/684
Words on website: Effects of Seasonal Allergic
Rhinitis on Fatigue Levels and Mood
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T8T-3RXPN3P-6&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=3b6117b39fa607cdf6eef026cbe88900 Physical activity in chronic fatigue
syndrome: Assessment and its role in fatigue
http://www.mercola.com/article/sleep.htm Words on website: 33 Secrets
to a Good Night's Sleep
http://www.kidshealth.org/teen/your_body/take_care/sleep.html
Words
on website: Garrett had a hard time waking up for school during his
sophomore year.
70 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
Chapter 22 Emotional Stress And Relaxation Techniques
CONCEPTS AND BELIEFS
ABOUT STRESS
A Note: What Is Emotional Stress?
As the term is used in this chapter, emotional
stress is a psychological response that increases various metabolic
processes, such as heart rate, sweating, muscle tension, metabolism, etc. This includes, nervousness, anxiety,
fear, anger, frustration, etc.
In a certain sense, there are
negative (unpleasant) and positive (pleasant) emotional stresses. For example, laughter increases heart
rate, and the number of other metabolic functions, and it is pleasant. A great deal of happiness when we
receive good news, and a pleasant enthusiasm and excitement about anything will
generally raise heart rate, and other metabolic processes to varying
degrees. We certainly should try to
increase this type of positive stress in our lives.
However, this chapter deals with
the more traditional types of unpleasant stress. Thus, when you see the word stress in
this chapter it refers to nervousness, anxiety, fear, anger, frustration, etc.
Do We Really Live In A More Emotionally Stressful Society?
There are many stressful challenges in our
modern world, such as maintaining employment, dealing with financial
obligations, arriving on time, meeting deadlines, passing examinations,
dressing properly, etc. Many believe
that the level of emotional stress, including, nervousness, anxiety, anger,
worry, and fear, that we face in modern life is excessively high, and it
contributes to physical and mental diseases, such as heart attacks, strokes,
depression, and anxiety disorders.
Whether
modern society is any more emotionally stressful than other societies, is
perhaps questionable. It is not
possible to evaluate accurately the levels of emotional stress from primitive
societies that no longer exist. It
can even be quite difficult to evaluate less modern societies that are still in
existence.
Perhaps,
a more accurate perspective on stress is life in general is challenging,
stressful, and sometimes, frustrating, anger provoking and fearful. There is no reason to believe that
living in a simpler or primitive society is necessarily less emotionally
stressful. Dealing with the threats
of wild animals, adverse weather conditions, starvation, and the probability of
illness an early death is probably more emotionally stressful than the
challenges we face in our modern world.
Comparing Modern Life To An Ideal Less Stressful Society
No doubt, an ideal primitive or
less modern society, perhaps in a beautiful tropical island, without dangerous
living conditions, is less emotionally stressful than modern society. This is probably what we dream about,
and what many critics of modern society think about, when they argue that
modern society is unusually stressful. However, under ideal living
conditions, life in modern society is also relatively free of adverse stress. Perhaps we can arrange our lives and
environment to approach this ideal.
I will discuss this later on in this chapter.
Modern Society Is Perhaps Excessively Concerned About Stress
Thus,
we probably do not live in a more stressful society, but we do live in a
society that is very concerned about emotional stress, perhaps excessively
so. This concern, has led to the
development of various methodologies that are designed to produce relaxation. In addition, many techniques that might
not specifically be designed for the purpose, such as yoga, and listening to
music, have been used for relaxation.
These techniques do reduce stress to varying degrees, and they are
generally health promoting. I will
discuss these techniques in detail later on in this chapter.
IS EMOTIONAL STRESS ALWAYS BAD, OR IS IT SOMETIMES
STIMULATING AND HEALTHY?
Stress Can Sometimes Provide The Energy And Motivation To Make
Improvements In Our Lives
Stress is not always unhealthy, and
it can provide the energy and motivation needed to escape from danger, or deal
with an adverse problem. For
example, when we lose our job the emotional stress can provide the motivation
and energy to find new employment quickly.
This involves focusing the stress on solving a problem, which in this
example is unemployment. Of course,
the stress associated with loss of employment can have just the opposite effect
for some people, and it can interfere with obtaining a new job. In this case the stress is not focused
on solving problems, it may be inadvertently focused on causing
difficulties. This can involve
various types of unhealthy behavior, anger, getting into conflict with family
members, excessive anxiety and/or depression. This can be a significant problem, even
if it is not severe enough to be classified as a psychological disorder or a
medical condition.
The above suggests an important
concept. If you can learn to focus
your emotional stress in constructive ways, you will solve your problems quicker,
and have a less stressful life. I
will discuss this later on in this chapter.
Under What Conditions Is Stress Destructive, And Under What Conditions
Is It Healthy And Productive?
Stress can be destructive or
unhealthy when it interferes with good health habits, causes conflict with
others, interferes with sleep or daily activities. For example, when some individuals are
under stress, they might skip meals, sleep less than they usually do, or they
may eat, drink alcohol, or smoke cigarettes excessively. Very often, when people are faced with
stressful periods in their lives, they resume bad habits that they have
broken. For example, a previously
obese person, may start eating excessively, and regain the weight that he or
she lost. An ex-smoker may start
smoking again. An ex-alcoholic
might start drinking excessively once again. An awareness
of this tendency can reduce the chances of returning to bad habits, when confronted with unpleasant
and stressful experiences. This
also requires determination, and a willingness to invest time and effort to
avoid returning to previously destructive habits. In this regard sometimes, professional
assistance is also beneficial or perhaps required.
RELAXATION TECHNIQUES AND
RELATED CONCEPTS
There Are A Large Number Of Relaxation Techniques
Generally, most of the methods of relaxation are
useful and effective, at least for some people. Your goal
should be to find the methods that are convenient, effective, and perhaps also
enjoyable, for you. This
should ideally involve experimenting with a number of relaxation techniques, to
determine what works for you. The
relaxation techniques that you use should fit into your lifestyle. For example, if you are very busy most
of the time, you should probably choose relaxation techniques that you can do
while traveling, or even while working.
Examples are muscle relaxation, self-hypnosis, and verbal suggestions
that can be performed while working.
On the other hand, if you have free time during the day, you might
prefer techniques that require an investment in time. Examples are meditation, attending yoga
classes, and formal self-hypnosis sessions in a deeply relaxed state.
I will discuss the various
relaxation techniques under separate headings in this chapter, which will be
numbered from one to eleven, for convenience. However, it is first important to
understand the limitations of some of the conventional relaxation techniques.
Specifically, many of the techniques do not deal with the cause of the
emotional stress; they just deal with calming the body. Good examples of causes of emotional
stress are financial problems, conflict with significant others, and concerns
about possible failures in school and employment. Thus, I provided for techniques that
deal with problems that often lead to a high level
of emotional stress.
A Note On A Different Perspective Of Emotional Stress
Some medical providers and drug
companies believe high levels of stress other result of biochemical imbalances,
and not the environmental factors mentioned above. This belief is in their financial
interest, because they are providing medical services and related drugs that
are essentially tranquilizers. In
most cases, emotional stress, including anxiety, is the result of
environmental factors, and perhaps the way the individual thinks about and
deals with the challenges of life.
However, there probably are some cases where the primary cause or
contributing factor of anxiety, nervousness, or anger stems from a biochemical
abnormality. In addition, some
individuals may not know how to deal with the problems of life, and they may
experience a level of stress that is high enough to interfere with rational
thinking and daily functioning. In
these extreme cases, medical assistants is justified, and required.
Keep in
mind the above does not apply to the normal stress that people experience in
daily life. Even very high levels of
stress, including anxiety and fear can be normal when an individual is faced
with the possibility of a major tragedy, such as danger to one's life, serious
illness of a family member, or loss of financial resources. The primary issue is how the person is
dealing with the highly stressful situation. If the high levels of stress do not
interfere with rational thinking and behavior, it probably does not require
medical treatment.
With the normal levels of stress,
the following relaxation techniques will probably be effective. For abnormal levels of stress, the
following techniques might also be effective, with the assistance of
appropriate medical services.
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE ONE:
FACING THE PROBLEMS OF LIFE, AND TRYING TO ALLEVIATE THEM
Try To Solve, Alleviate, Or Circumvent Your Problems
Facing, evaluating and attempting to resolve your problems
to the maximum feasible extent is probably one of the best relaxation
techniques. That is, try to solve
the problems that are causing emotional stress, and if they cannot be solved,
try to circumvent them, or reduce the resulting adverse consequences.
However, sometimes there are many
stresses in our lives, and we are not sure what is causing the emotional
stress. Asking yourself the
following questions may help you determine the cause of your emotional stress.
Ask yourself: what is making me anxious,
fearful, nervous, or angry? Then
try to quietly think and evaluate all the possible causes? Make a list of the possible causes of
your adverse feelings, on paper, on a computer screen, or in your mind. You can list them in order of
importance. Then try to eliminate
or reduce the causative factors of your stress. To do this, ask yourself for each factor
on the list what are all the possible ways that I can eliminate or alleviate
this problem.
Three Common Causes Of Emotional Stress, And Some Possible Solutions
Problematic relationships are
probably one of the most common causes of emotional stress. This often involves an employer, or a
family member. Some solutions are
to try to eliminate conflict, and try to be as cooperative, kind and friendly
as possible. Put yourself in their
place, and tried to figure out why the relationship is problematic, with the
goal of devising constructive solutions.
Sometimes the best strategy to
deal with a problematic relationship is to change the nature of the
relationship, so it is less problematic.
In some cases, this can involve distancing yourself. A good example is when a young person
moves out of their parents house, to avoid conflict. Another alternative is to break up the
relationship entirely.
Money problems are another very
common source of emotional stress.
Obvious solutions are seeking employment, or a more lucrative job, and
cutting expenses.
You might be able to cut your
expenses by asking yourself each time you are about to make a purchase, do I
really need this item. If I do not
get this item what will be the consequences? Delay purchases to give yourself time to
determine if you really need the item.
Various types of failures or the
risk of failing, at employment, school, or just about anything else, can result
in high levels of emotional stress.
Sometimes these problems can be alleviated by focusing more time and
effort to rectify a failure, or to prevent it. For example, investing more time and
effort at studies can reduce the chances of school failures. A greater level of determination and
effort can sometimes prevent failures associated with employment.
An alternative approach to deal
with failures or the possibility of failing is to seek out a different
environment or set of circumstances, where you may have a better chance of
success. For example, this can
involve changing a college major, changing a school, changing a career,
changing a job, or moving to a locality where you have better
opportunities.
In general, seeking out situations
and environments that are less emotionally stressful, healthy, pleasant, and
fruitful in relation to your goals is a good strategy.
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE TWO
DEVELOP A HEALTHY ATTITUDE OR PHILOSOPHY
Learn To Deal With Imperfections And Failures In Yourself, In Others,
And In The World In General
Developing a philosophy and attitude of acceptance
will reduce your level of emotional stress. This involves expecting and excepting,
some failures and imperfections in yourself and others. Most people cannot succeed at everything
they try, and they sometimes partly or totally fail at an endeavor. The world and the people around us are
in perfect. People often disappoint
each other, and frustrate each other.
Keeping all of this in mind and trying to make the best of an imperfect
life, and an imperfect world can reduce emotional stress.
Of
course, none of the above implies that you should let yourself fail. Your focus should be on successfully
obtaining your goals, with the understanding that you may not succeed, and if
you fail it is not necessarily a tragedy.
There are usually alternative ways where we can succeed, or at the very
least enjoy life.
Design Your Life, And Activities To Make You Healthy And Happy
You do not necessarily have to
succeed at your goals to enjoy life.
There are some people that invested a huge amount of energy and effort
to obtain certain goals, such as a high status occupation, but it did not bring
them health and happiness. One of
your primary goals should be to obtain health and happiness. It does not involve competing with
others, and it may not even involve a large investment in time, money and
effort. It involves arranging your
life and activities so they are less emotionally stressful, health promoting,
and pleasurable.
People Under Emotional Stress, Sometimes Inadvertently Cause Problems
For Others
When people are faced with a high level of stress,
they may cause problems for others.
An individual that is confronted with a high level of stress might be
impatient with others, and less tolerant.
This essentially involves inadvertently focusing nervous energy in a
destructive or problematic way.
Developing an awareness of the above, tendency, may help you avoid this
type of behavior, and difficulties with others when you are under stress.
When
you are under stress, you should try to focus your nervous energy on
alleviating the difficulties that are causing the stress. This can involve thinking quietly,
determining the problems, and making plans that are likely to alleviate the
problems. Then of course, you must
carry out the plans. All of this
can involve some initial failures to solve your problems. This can require efforts at creating
better plans, and trial and error, until you solve or at least alleviate your
problems.
Design A Healthy And Happy Life, And Live It
A less stressful, happy and healthy life in a
certain sense can be designed, like an architect designs a house. Except, to design and build a less
stressful life, we are not working with wood, bricks and mortar. We are working with our plans, goals,
the way we invest our time, the things we do on a daily or weekly basis, and
the things we don't do. We are
working with where we live, and how we live, our behavior patterns and health
habits, what we own, and what we do not own. All of this can be modified or entirely
changed to produce a less stressful, happy and healthy life
The idea here is to make plans and
take actions that will lead to a healthier and happier life. To do this, start with a list of
questions that can help you think and plan, such as the following.
·
What are all the activities and situations that I find enjoyable? Make a list of these activities and
situations. Place the most
enjoyable on top and the least enjoyable on the bottom of your list. When you complete the list tried to
figure out ways of increasing each item on the list, starting from the top of
the list.
·
What are all the activities and situations that I find emotionally
stressful, and unpleasant? Make a
list of these activities and situations.
Place the most stressful and unpleasant on top and the least stressful
and unpleasant on the bottom of the list.
When you complete the list tried to figure out ways of eliminating or
decreasing each item on the list.
·
What are all your unhealthy habits and behaviors? Make a list of these items. Place the most unhealthy items on top of
your list, and less unhealthy items on the bottom of your list. When you complete the list tried to
figure out ways of eliminating or
decreasing each item on the list.
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE
FIVE: LISTENING TO RELAXING MUSIC OR OTHER SOUNDS
Basic Concepts Music And Sounds For Relaxation
Using music as a relaxation technique is
probably the most enjoyable and easiest relaxation method. Relaxing music can be combined with most
of the other relaxation techniques discussed in the following paragraphs. There
are special recordings with music or other sounds, such
as sound of rain that use for relaxation.
The following web link will activate a good example. http://www.sulger.net/soundsculptures/rain.html. However, you can use any type of
recorded sound you find relaxing.
The ideal is to have a number of musical and/or sound recordings that
you find relaxing.
Getting Started With The
Technique
The best way to get started with
this technique is to engage in some experimenting to find the music and/or
sounds that help you relax. As far
as equipment is concerned, you probably already own what you need. A computer with a CD drive and speakers
can do the job quite well. Any type
of CD player or an MP3 player will also serve the purpose very well. For some people, headphones can enhance
the experience, because they block out environmental noise, and produce an
enhanced stereophonic effect.
When using musical other sounds
for relaxation, you should ideally lie down, or sit in a recliner in a
comfortable and relaxed position.
Then, focus on the music or other sounds and let your body lies still
with little or no movement during the relaxation session. The session can last from 10 minutes to
over an hour.
Relaxing Music Or Sounds While You Are Involved With Other Activities
Some people might find music or
other sounds relaxing while they are working, performing household chores, and
many other activities. You can even
use relaxing sounds while you are away from home. You can use a portable CD or MP3 player,
with a pair of headphones, while you are shopping, walking in the street,
waiting on line, and even while exercising. Relaxing sounds will probably be most
effective while sitting, such as in a bus or train. However, relaxing sounds should not be
listened to while driving an automobile, or when working with dangerous
machinery, because it might reduce alertness, which can result in accidents.
The easiest way to test out, or
start a program of relaxation with music, is to click on the hyperlinks
below. These links will activate
videos with relaxation music, on the Internet. The videos and music were created by a
number of authors and they are in different styles, but they are all intended
for relaxation. Some of these
videos have extraordinarily beautiful imagery and music.
Hyperlinks To Videos On The Internet With Relaxation Music
Search phrase would Google video: “Relaxation
music” http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=%E2%80%9CRelaxation+music%E2%80%9D&hl=en&sitesearch=
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8DXLmnaNOAo
Words on website: Relaxation music
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mzT5HrlEijU&feature=related
Words on website: relax music
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dlZKW3ZIa8U&feature=related
Words on website: sleepy music
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4UlZyuFiGks&feature=related
Words on website: Relax Music 1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_jQkT5dsupQ&feature=related
Words on website: Relax Music 2
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v4pFZXOd58U
Words on website: Relax Music 3
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GihYhN0hkzw&feature=related
Words on website: Relax Music 4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9UTVUZ5SD1U&feature=related
Words on website: Relax Music 5
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PEulyxBCA6c&feature=related
Words on website: Relaxation music
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bi3IENWwg5I&feature=related
Words on website: Flowers with relaxation music
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFr48tLthUo&feature=related
Words on website: Nature - relax music
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YEwFwfWFnEA&feature=related
Words on website: Embrace The Moment - World Yoga Relaxation Music –
Slideshow
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TismjQkaZaA
Words on website: Un mundo de Paz y Relax
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2603790387574228430&q=%E2%80%9CRelaxation+music%E2%80%9D&ei=un0uSNGQC4S4rgLtmuWdAw&hl=en
Words on website: Soothing Relaxation Music for Meditation
Search phrase with Google: “relaxing
sounds” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9Crelaxing+sounds%E2%80%9D&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.sulger.net/soundsculptures/ Words on website: Relaxing
Sounds of Nature
http://www.getrelaxed.com/
Words on website: Reduce Your Stress Level
Listen To Soothing Sounds Online
http://www.lhj.com/lhj/files/relaxationzone/relaxpopupSized.html
Words on website: Soothing Sounds
71 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE SIX
MEDITATION
A Basic Description Of Meditation For Relaxation
Meditation can be used as a very effective
relaxation technique. It generally,
relaxes the mind, muscles and entire body.
There are many variations of meditation, many of which are associated
with various religions, and Eastern philosophies. Most types of meditation involve sitting
in a relaxed position, and focusing your mind on an object, an image, or a
phrase that is repeated many times over.
During the meditation session, your thoughts and focus are temporarily
narrowed, and you become less aware of your worries and concerns.
Is Meditation A Good Relaxation Technique For Everyone?
Meditation
probably is not suitable for many people.
It requires a considerable level of discipline, and practice for some
people. However, some individuals
develop the skill relatively quickly and easily.
The way the meditation is carried
out can also determine the level of difficulty involved. For example, sitting in a lotus
position, on the floor for 30 minutes or an hour, without moving can be
difficult, and quite uncomfortable for most people. However, sitting back in a recliner, and
meditating, perhaps in a less than perfect way, will be much easier for most
people. The use of the recliner
will also probably provide a more relaxed state. A disadvantage of using a recliner is
you might fall asleep, instead of meditating, with the lotus position this is
less likely to happen.
The Practical Use Of Meditation As A Relaxation Technique
There is a considerable amount of
information available on the Internet on meditation. However, much of this information is
religious or philosophical, and it does not relate to the practical use of
meditation as a relaxation technique.
The simplest way to use meditation for relaxation is to find a
comfortable seating position, and repeat a sound over and over again, such as
mmm.
For more information on meditation
see the videos on the Internet listed below.
Videos on the Internet On Meditation
Search phrase with Google video: Meditation http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Meditation&hl=en&sitesearch
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3909741767148303056&q=Meditation&ei=adgrSOyROZCUrgL0r72aCg&hl=en Words on website: Chi Qi Kung
Meditation for Psi Fire Ball. DBZ Naruto?
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6027356255368102025&q=Meditation&ei=PtkrSOjkKYzIrQK2hJH7CQ&hl=en Words on website: Chakra Meditation
Websites On Meditation And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: Meditation http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Meditation&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation
Words on website: Meditation From Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist_meditation Words on
website:
Buddhist meditation From Wikipedia
http://www.how-to-meditate.org/
Words on website: How to Meditate
http://www.meditationcenter.com/
Words on website: The World Wide Online Meditation Center
http://1stholistic.com/Meditation/hol_meditation.htm
Words on website: Welcome To The Meditation Infocenter in
HolisticOnline.com!
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/meditation/HQ01070
Words on website: MayoClinic Meditation: Take a stress-reduction
http://home.att.net/~meditation/MeditationHandbook.html
Words on website: Meditation Handbook
Search phrase with Google: “Meditation as
a relaxation technique” http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9CMeditation+as+a+relaxation+technique%E2%80%9D&btnG=Google+Search
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/06/040617081841.htm
Words
on website: Emory Researchers Study The Effects Of Zen Meditation On The
Brain
http://www.beyondtheveil.net/meditation.html Words on website: Words on
website: The Art of Meditation
72 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE
SEVEN: BREATHING EXERCISES
Breathing exercises involve controlling the breath in
various ways, to produce relaxation.
This can involve a forced increased rate of breathing,
hyperventilation. Another variation
is slowing up of breathing rate by means of breath control, and relaxing the
body without movement. It can also
involve taking in very deep breaths, and holding the breath and then
releasing. There are many other
variations of breathing exercises.
Breathing Exercises With Other Relaxation Techniques
You can perform breathing
exercises with other relaxation techniques, including relaxing music,
meditation, and the other techniques discussed in the remainder of this
chapter. Breathing exercises are
probably most effective when they are used with other relaxation techniques.
Learning And Experimenting With Breathing Exercises
If you are interested in detailed
demonstrations and instructions on breathing exercises, consult the Internet
videos on the end of this section.
You can also experiment with various breathing rates while relaxing. Monitoring your breathing, while relaxing
your body, with the goal of slowing your breathing depth and rate, is a simple
and effective relaxation technique.
Hyperlinks To Internet Videos On Breathing Exercises For Relaxation
Search phrase with Google video: "Breathing
exercises" and relaxation http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=%22Breathing+exercises%22+and+relaxation&hl=en&sitesearch
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4586379167573053939&q=%22Breathing+exercises%22+and+relaxation&ei=rdEuSIz1A46IrQKi1MiACg&hl=en
Words on website: Relaxation and Breathing with Rodney Yee
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2377754800779671941&q=%22Breathing+exercises%22+and+relaxation&ei=ztIuSODPPIqWrwKqypX7CQ&hl=en
Words on website: How to Do Breathing
Exercises
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7280242304850320680&q=%22Breathing+exercises%22+and+relaxation&ei=ftMuSOzNLqWCrAL3p9T9Cw&hl=en Words on website: Breathing Exercises - Introduction.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7280242304850320680&q=%22Breathing+exercises%22+and+relaxation&ei=ftMuSOzNLqWCrAL3p9T9Cw&hl=en Words on website: Breathing Pattern 4
Stress Relief
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7280242304850320680&q=%22Breathing+exercises%22+and+relaxation&ei=ftMuSOzNLqWCrAL3p9T9Cw&hl=en
Words on website: Conscious breathing
Websites On Breathing Exercises And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: “breathing
exercises” for relaxation
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%E2%80%9Cbreathing+exercises%E2%80%9D+for+relaxation&btnG=Google+Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTCS_05.htm Words on website: Physical Relaxation
Techniques Deep Breathing, PMR and the Relaxation Response
https://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=LUUM6DNN49N99KER14BSL5GD190J52ME&ID=32498 Words on website:
Breathing Techniques to Promote Client Relaxation
and Tension Reduction
http://www.revolutionhealth.com/conditions/mental-behavioral-health/anxiety/relaxation-techniques/breathing Words on website: Breathing
exercises for relaxation
73 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE EIGHT:
PROGRESSIVE RELAXATION
A Description Of The Technique
Progressive relaxation involves a systematic relaxing of the muscles,
generally while sitting or lying down.
This technique involves developing a sensitivity and awareness of your
muscle tension. To achieve this you
contract the various muscles in your body in a sequence. For example, you sit or lie in a relaxed
position, and contract your muscles in your left toe, for a few seconds and
release the tension. After this,
you can contract the muscles in your left foot, and hold it for a few seconds
then release the tension. This same
process is repeated with all of the limbs and most of the voluntary muscles on
the left and right side of the body.
The Objective Of Progressive Relaxation
The goal of this exercise is the
development of awareness, and control of the tension in your muscles. The idea is, if you can become aware of
the tension in your muscles, when you are nervous, you can release the tension
by relaxing your muscles. This can
reduce the level of nervousness and produce some relaxation. When this skill is developed, it is
possible to initiate some degree of relaxation even while standing and
confronting an anxiety-provoking situation.
Combining Progressive Relaxation Techniques With
Other Methods
Progressive relaxation can be
performed with many of the other relaxation methods discussed in this
chapter. It can greatly reinforced
the effectiveness of other methods, and developing this skill will help with
all the relaxation techniques discussed in this chapter. Progressive relaxation is especially
useful when it is combined with relaxing music, and/or hypnosis. (I discuss hypnosis in the next
section.)
Mastering Progressive Relaxation
Using progressive relaxation
effectively, involves a moderate degree of skill development and practice. The Internet videos and websites listed
below will provide precise demonstrations and instructions on how to learn
progressive relaxation techniques.
Videos On The Internet For Progressive Relaxation
Techniques
Search phrase with Google video: Progressive Relaxation
Techniques http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Progressive+Relaxation+Techniques&hl=en&sitesearch= This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1779823610029755969&q=Progressive+Relaxation+Techniques&ei=btQrSOeQB5CUrgL0r72aCg&hl=en Words on website: Relaxation Demostration
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1830785164613845190&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=KiMvSIeRJpiAqwKAwKidCg&hl=en
Words on website: Rapid Progressive Relaxation Hypnosis
Induction Challenge
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=8408555272489810701&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=3CMvSJTBBoyYrALq7cWICg&hl=en
Words on website: Progressive Relaxation For Stress
Relief & Management
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6702964290905399906&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=SCQvSPcwg5yvAqPkoZIK&hl=en Words on website: Progressive
relaxation
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-335014977727218128&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=8yQvSLKXI5OqrgLAoa2KCg&hl=en Words on website: Progressive
Relaxation Video under 10 minutes for TUWALKI
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4422425766525815933&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=PSYvSO3dO5y2rAK3mvWgCg&hl=en Words on website: Introduction to
Progressive Relaxation
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3104116085532505261&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=KCcvSLaUA4WwqQLjp-yfBQ&hl=en Words on website: progressive
muscle relaxation
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=5342356070202892506&q=Progressive+Relaxation&ei=hScvSJr9DoH4rQK-3smaCg&hl=en
Words on website: Progressive muscular relaxation Will
Newnes
Websites On Progressive Relaxation Techniques
Search phrase with Google: Progressive Relaxation
Techniques http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Progressive+Relaxation+Techniques&btnG=Search This website consists of one or more
search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.relaxationexpert.co.uk/ProgressiveRelaxationTechniques.html Words on website: Words on website: Progressive Relaxation Techniques
http://209.85.215.104/search?q=cache:Z2eZgDkACXsJ:www.dartmouth.edu/~acskills/docs/deep_breathing.doc+%E2%80%9Cbreathing+exercises%E2%80%9D+for+relaxation&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=us Words on website: Breathing Awareness
and Deep Breathing
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1779823610029755969&q=Progressive+Relaxation+Techniques&ei=btQrSOeQB5CUrgL0r72aCg&hl=en Words on website: Breathing Awareness and Deep
Breathing
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1779823610029755969&q=Progressive+Relaxation+Techniques&ei=btQrSOeQB5CUrgL0r72aCg&hl=en Words on website:
Progressive Relaxation For Stress Relief & Management
http://stress.about.com/od/breathingexercises/ht/breathing_ex.htm Words on website: How To
Release Tension With Stress Relief Breathing
http://www.blurtit.com/q347386.html
Words on website: What are the progressive relaxation
techniques?
74 Click on this hyperlink for a sound
file of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE
NINE: HYPNOSIS
Types Of Hypnosis And A Description Of The Basic Technique
There are many variations of hypnosis, and the
technique has other uses besides relaxation. There are also many theories,
descriptions, diverse views on what hypnosis is and how it works. I am providing my description below.
Hypnosis is a high degree of
focus concentration, without analytical thinking, which is usually coupled with
a deeply relaxed state. The focus
concentration is on an information source, which can be a hypnotist, a sound
recording, a video, or even yourself (with self-hypnosis). The information source provides
instructions or orders. The
hypnotized person follows the instructions or orders of the information source,
without evaluations, without analyzing, and without any extraneous
thinking. This generally holds true
for a person that is at least in a moderately deep hypnotic state, and when the
instructions or orders are reasonable.
For example, if impossible or obvious destructive or potentially
dangerous instructions are given, the hypnotized subject generally will not
obey. Hypnotized subjects are not
unconscious, and analytical evaluations can be switched on if confronted with
highly inappropriate or dangerous orders.
The hypnotized person is essentially voluntarily, focusing his
concentration, and following instructions of the information source, without
analytical thinking.
There are people and sources of
information on hypnosis that would disagree with my description of the
concept. Some believe that there
are supernatural forces, the unconscious mind, or specific brain wave states
that are always associated with hypnosis. Whether or not any of these beliefs
have, any validity is not important for the practical application of hypnosis.
The above suggests the question:
how are people put into a hypnotic state.
The answer is with a hypnotic induction consisting of a set of
instructions that the hypnotized subject voluntarily follows. The instructions
in the hypnotic induction relate to obtaining a high degree of focus
concentration, on the information source (hypnotist), without analytical
thinking. The instructions also
usually relate to relaxation, such as close your eyes, and relax deeper and
deeper. The process of sitting
still and concentrating on the information source, by itself will usually
result in a deeply relaxed state.
Another
variation of the technique is self hypnosis. This involves hypnotizing yourself with
a series of suggestions. The
suggestions can involve verbalizations and visualizations (fantasies) that you
find pleasant and relaxing. The
fantasy is progressively increased in a series of stages that relate to a
deeper and deeper state of concentration and relaxation. There are books and tapes, and
instructions on the Internet that provide detailed information on
self-hypnosis. (See the Internet
videos and websites below.)
Hypnosis With Sound Recordings Or Videos
Another
variation of hypnosis involves a sound recording, or a video. This is probably the easiest and most
economical way to learn and utilize hypnosis. This can involve a set of hypnotic
instructions that were recorded by a hypnotist, or by you. It is possible to make your own hypnotic
recordings that relate to your specific preferences and goals. However, there are many types of
hypnotic recordings and videos available, on the Internet, some of which are
free. (See the list of Internet
videos that are hyperlinked to this chapter, at the end of this section.)
How To Use Hypnosis Successfully
Hypnosis is generally most
effective when it is used to help people practice, and carry out steps that
relate to their goals. Hypnosis is
generally not an alternative way of obtaining an objective. For example, if you have a hypnotist
tell you that you will be relaxed when speaking in front of an audience, you
will probably not succeed. This is
called a posthypnotic suggestion, and by itself it will usually not lead to
success. If you are in fact more
relaxed in front of an audience, because of a posthypnotic suggestion the
results will be temporary. With this
example, to become more relaxed, you would have to practice relaxation
techniques, or self-hypnosis, while speaking in front of an audience. If you practice this extensively over a
period of time you almost certainly will eventually be more relaxed when
speaking in front of an audience.
Posthypnotic suggestions, and
other hypnotic techniques, are very useful when they reinforce the actions and
practice needed to obtain a goal.
That is, the idea is to practice, on an ongoing basis,
with the aid of hypnosis, relaxing in environments
where you are usually nervous.
Giving yourself hypnotic
suggestions throughout the day when you are faced with anxiety provoking
situations, can be quite helpful.
This involves ongoing practice, where you give yourself relaxing
thoughts when you are faced with anxiety or anger provoking situations. This can involve relaxing imagery, as
well as relaxing words. This should
ideally be coupled with a realistic assessment of the anxiety-provoking situation. This can involve asking yourself how bad
is this situation. Is it really
important? Will it have any
significance tomorrow, next week, next month, next year? If it does not, you may be over reacting
with nervousness, anxiety, or anger. Hypnosis can help reduce this
overreaction, especially if it is coupled with the understanding that your
responses are overreactions.
However, if you are dealing with a critical situation, and you are not
overreacting, you can use hypnotic suggestions to focus your nervous energy on
dealing with the problem in an optimized way.
For demonstrations and precise
instructions on learning and utilizing hypnosis consult the following list of
Internet videos and websites.
Hyperlinks To Internet Videos On Hypnosis
Search phrase with Google video: Hypnosis and
relaxation http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&hl=en&sitesearch=
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8698204418906782255&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=LTQvSLDHAqX0rAL7zYCcCg&hl=en
Words own website: PEKOR HYPNOSIS... HYPNOSIS FOR RELAXATION
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8065811571916997765&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=pzQvSObSFoGqrQK4kIyPCg&hl=en Words own website: Hypnosis - Eye
Relaxation Exercise
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6107035458193218840&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=VjUvSNSaA4GMrgKKsMWJCg&hl=en Words own website: Hypnosis for
Relaxation and Stress Relief
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5559887213406210482&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=BDYvSLHrA4eorwK26cSACg&hl=en Words own website: Hypnosis
Relaxation Video
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4645832745194468213&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=djYvSOHwAoWqrwKklKSOCg&hl=en Words own website: Hypnosis Relaxation
Scripts
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1771376526541742726&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=-zYvSPzVKI6ArgK7xoieCg&hl=en Words own website: Self Hypnosis free
relaxation & de-stress session now
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1771376526541742726&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=-zYvSPzVKI6ArgK7xoieCg&hl=en Words own website: A Self Hypnosis
Video
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1771376526541742726&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=-zYvSPzVKI6ArgK7xoieCg&hl=en Words own website: Hypnotize Yourself
FOR REAL
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-1771376526541742726&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=-zYvSPzVKI6ArgK7xoieCg&hl=en Words own website: HYPNOTIZE YOURSELF
into being a yodler
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-374033632206299739&q=Hypnosis+and+relaxation&ei=fjgvSNjSL5KqrwLd8r2QCg&hl=en Words own website: Hypnosis -
Free-Hypno.com Presents "Relaxation" Hypnotherapy
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3264206687120457362&ei=3jwvSNSfMYa-qAKM9-yWCg&hl=en Words own website: Daydream
Relaxation Video
Websites On Hypnosis And Relaxation
Search phrase with Google: Hypnosis with
relaxation http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Hypnosis+with+relaxation&btnG=Search
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/319/7221/1346 Words own website: Hypnosis and
relaxation therapies
http://free-hypno.com/index.html Words own website: Welcome to
FreeHypnosisTreatment.com!
http://www.mindtools.com/stress/RelaxationTechniques/SelfHypnosis.htm Words own website: Self-Hypnosis Relaxation
Techniques from Mind Tools
http://www.imeem.com/abooks/music/DdxbQoOl/hypnosis_relaxation_deep_sleep_meditation_hypno/ Words own website: Hypnosis
& Relaxation - Deep Sleep Meditation Hypno
75 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE TEN:
BIOFEEDBACK FOR RELAXATION
A Basic Description And Basic Concepts Of Biofeedback
There are many types of biofeedback. Biofeedback is a method of monitoring a
physiological process, such as your heart rate, rate of breathing, blood
pressure, brain waves, with the goal of controlling the process. For example, an individual may monitor
her heart rate, with the goal of temporarily reducing the number of beats per
minute.
Many believe that biofeedback
involves the voluntary mind taking direct control over a physiological process,
more or less similar to the way we control our hands when we manipulate an
object. This theory is
questionable. A more realistic
explanation is the individual is indirectly controlling a biological process by
manipulating various aspects of the body that are normally under voluntary
control. For example, an individual
might reduce their blood pressure, heart rate, or the frequency of their brain
waves, during a biofeedback session, by sitting quietly in a chair, without
movement, closing their eyes, relaxing their voluntary muscles, and focusing
their thought processes in a relaxing way.
All of the above physiological
functions (blood pressure, heart rate, or the frequency of brain waves) can
also be increased during a biofeedback session, if that is the goal. This can involve contracting voluntary
muscles, with the eyes wide open. It can also involve focusing the mind on
thoughts that the individual perceives as exciting.
Biofeedback Is Usually Done With Some Type Of Electronic Monitoring
Device
Biofeedback is usually done with some
type of electronic monitoring device that provides immediate feedback about a
physiological process. For example,
an individual trying to control the frequency of her brain waves will be hooked
up to an electroencephalograph. An
individual trying to control her heart rate can be hooked up to a
heart-monitoring device.
Usually, the equipment used for
biofeedback is somewhat different from the conventional medical devices. That is, the readout, the feedback, is
provided in a simplified form that can be understood instantly, by an
individual without a medical background.
For example, an electroencephalograph designed for biofeedback might
provide a readout consisting of beeps that correlate with brainwave frequency. This would involve an individual listening
to the beeps while hooked up to the machine, with the goal of controlling the
number of beeps per unit of time.
Reduction in the number of beeps per unit of time, would relate to a
lower brain wave frequency, and a more relaxed state.
You Do Not Necessarily Need Equipment To Use Biofeedback As A
Relaxation Technique
Certain types of biofeedback can
be done without any equipment at all.
This is especially the case when the goal is the practical application
of biofeedback to control emotional stress, nervousness and anxiety. One of these biofeedback techniques
involves monitoring your heart rate by placing your hands on your chest while
lying down or sitting comfortably in a recliner. When this is done, the individual
focuses her attention on slowing up the heart rate to reduce tension and relax
the body. This can be done by lying
still, relaxing the muscles, and focusing on relaxing thoughts, all of which
will slow down the heart rate. A
similar method can also be done with breathing, with the hands placed on the
belly. This involves slowing the
breathing, which can be done in the same way as slowing the heart rate.
A Modified Version Of Biofeedback Can Be, Performed While Doing Other
Activities
A simplified version of
biofeedback can be done while you are engaged in other activities. This involves developing a deeper
awareness of how your body feels, your muscle tension, your breathing rate, and
heart rate, while you are engaged in various activities. Most of us, can sense our breathing
rate, and even our heart rate to some degree while engaged in other activities,
even without any practice. With
this ability to monitor our body, we can make efforts to reduce muscle tension,
breathing rate, and heart rate, with the goal of reducing emotional stress, and
relaxing. To do this, periodically
asked yourself: how do I feel, are my muscles tense, is my breathing rate high,
is my heart rate high. Then try to
reduce all of the above, even if they are not particularly high. This can be done whenever you encounter
stressful or anxiety provoking situations.
The more you practice with this technique, the better the results will
be, especially if you practice it when you are faced with high levels of
stress.
For more information and
different views on biofeedback consult the list of Internet videos and websites
listed below.
Internet Videos On Biofeedback
Search phrase with Google video: Biofeedback
http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=Biofeedback&hl=en&sitesearch= This website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to
other websites. If you do not find
what you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will
appear in a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7819668826277127421&q=Biofeedback&ei=YBAxSIS7GZzaqAKV0fDkBA&hl=en Words on website: What is Quantum
Biofeedback?
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-8436802743841490942&q=biofeedback&ei=S4wsSI3jA5qarQK4rMiHCg&hl=en Words on website: Coping With Stress - Biofeedback: Self-Mastery Beyond Pills
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3588765763917305215&q=Biofeedback&ei=JZIsSOzBG6jsrAKy6PGGCg&hl=en Words
on webs ite: EEG CHICAGO Neurofeedback / Biofeedback
Search phrase with Google: Biofeedback http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Biofeedback&btnG=Google+Search
This website
consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-7668045290880450434&ei=S5EsSNXDH4XorgKxq7GOCg&hl=en
Search phrase with Google: “Biofeedback and relaxation”
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Biofeedback+and+relaxation%22&btnG=Search
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-research/summaries/mcginnis-biofeedback-relaxation.jsp Words on website: Controlling Blood Glucose Through Biofeedback
and Relaxation Therapy
http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ETO/content/ETO_5_3X_Biofeedback.asp Words on website: Biofeedback
http://www.ahealthyme.com/topic/biopain
Words on website: Biofeedback and Pain Relief
http://www.futurehealth.org/BFfaq.htm Words on website: Common
Questions that beginning professionals and laymen ask
http://www.psychosomaticmedicine.org/cgi/reprint/40/4/276.pdf
Words on website: Treatment of Hypertension with
Biofeedback and Relaxation Techniques
http://webideas.com/biofeedback/index/ Words on website: Biofeedback Products:
http://www.lifematters.com/bfbarticle.html Words on website: Biofeedback:
Exciting and Empowering Process
Search phrase with Google: “Biofeedback equipment” http://www.google.com/search?q=%E2%80%9CBiofeedback+equipment%E2%80%9D&hl=en&start=0&sa=N
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://bio-medical.com/ Words on
website: PC Biofeedback Systems
http://www.toolsforwellness.com/biofeedback.html Words on website: Biofeedback
Machines
http://www.biof.com/onlinestore/gsrtemp.asp?redirect=yes
Words on website: Biofeedback/Neurofeedback Equipment for Home & Clinic,
Training Courses,
76 Click on this hyperlink for a sound file
of the following:
RELAXATION TECHNIQUE
ELEVEN: MULTIPLE TECHNIQUES IN AN OPTIMIZED COMBINATION
A Number Of Relaxation Techniques In The Right Combination For You
All of the relaxation techniques discussed above,
can be used together, by the same individual. Many of these techniques can even be
used simultaneously. For example, hypnosis
can be used simultaneously with progressive relaxation techniques, breathing
exercises, and relaxing music.
Relaxing music can be used with meditation, or biofeedback. Ideally, a stress reduction program
should involve most of the techniques discussed above, in a combination that is
optimized for the individual. This
generally involves learning about the various relaxation techniques,
experimenting with them individually, and in combination to find out what works
best for you.
Ongoing Practice Using
Multiple Relaxation Techniques
All of the techniques have to be combined with ongoing practice. In
addition, you should apply and practice relaxation techniques every time you
experience counterproductive emotional responses brought on by stress, including
nervousness, frustration, anxiety, anger and fear.
Internet Videos On Various Aspects Of Relaxation
Search phrase with Google video: Relaxation
http://video.google.com/videosearch?hl=en&q=Relaxation&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wv This website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to
other websites. If you do not find
what you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear
in a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6863356147549371026&q=Relaxation&ei=OjAySInpJJqarQK4rMiHCg&hl=en Deep relaxation session by LifeCoach
ALKISTIS
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4606233176631341904&q=Relaxation&hl=en Instant Relaxation
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4606233176631341904&q=Relaxation&hl=en Havasupai Indian Waterfall Relaxation
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4829254318222580590&q=Relaxation&ei=eDMySKjiN6LaqALv4OSRCg&hl=en Relaxation - Most Soothing Voice on
YouTube
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4786051703243082395&q=Relaxation&ei=AjQySNrwBYKKrQKVqPifDQ&hl=en Mountain Stream Relaxation
Video
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4786051703243082395&q=Relaxation&ei=AjQySNrwBYKKrQKVqPifDQ&hl=en Zen Getaway
Anxiety Relief: Affirmations with Binuaral Beats
for Relaxation
Websites On Relaxation And Related Concepts
Search phrase with Google: Relaxation http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Relaxation&btnG=Google+Search
This
website consists of one or more search pages, with many links to other
websites. If you do not find what
you want on this website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in
a dialog box, after you click on the above web address. After changing the search phrase, press
the enter key, and you will see a different set of websites.
http://www.relaxation.com/ Words of website: Relaxing
Resources
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/relaxation-technique/SR00007 Words of website: Mayo Clinic
Relaxation techniques: Learn ways to calm your stress
http://www.hws.edu/studentlife/counseling_relax.aspx Words of website: RELAXATION
TECHNIQUES
http://www.mindtools.com/stress/RelaxationTechniques/IntroPage.htm Words of website: Relaxation
Techniques
Search phrase with Google: Software for Relaxation http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Software+for+Relaxation
This website consists
of one or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://bio-medical.com/product_info.cfm?inventory__imodel=M10 Words of website: CalmLink
Software for GSR2
http://www.bruceeisner.com/mindware/2006/03/calmlink_biofee.html Words of website: CalmLink Relaxation
Software Works With the GSR-II System (A Biofeedback Mouse)
http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-7344553_ITM Words of website: Turning Your PC Into A Stress-Free Zone
Software For Relaxation Enjoy the sounds of wind chimes, rain, crickets or
chirping birds as you work.(INTERNET & TECHNOLOGY)(COMPUTERS MADE PLAIN)
Search phrase with Google: Health Sleep Wake
Cycle http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=Health+Sleep+Wake+Cycle
This website consists of one
or more search pages, with many links to other websites. If you do not find what you want on this
website, you can change the search phrase that will appear in a dialog box,
after you click on the above web address.
After changing the search phrase, press the enter key, and you will see
a different set of websites.
http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/circadian.html Words on website: What are Circadian Rhythm Sleep
Disorders? LEARNING
ABOUT CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS
http://www.sleepfoundation.org/atf/cf/%7BF6BF2668-A1B4-4FE8-8D1A-A5D39340D9CB%7D/Sleep-Wake_Cycle.pdf Words on website: Sleep-Wake Cycle: Its Physiology and Impact on Health
http://www.doctormurray.com/conditions/Insomnia.asp Words on website: Insomnia
& Sleep-wake Cycle Disorder
http://www.emro.who.int/Publications/emhj/1303/article17.htm
Words on
website: Sleep–wake
cycle disturbances in protein–energy malnutrition: effect of nutritional
rehabilitation
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/53343.php Words on website: Light
Deprivation Hinders Ability To Regulate Sleep-Wake Cycle
http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/525731 Words on website: The
Sleep-Wake Cycle and Its Clinical Implications in Understanding and Managing
Insomnia
http://www.cababstractsplus.org/google/abstract.asp?AcNo=20053154187 Words on website: Biological
clock and sleep/wake cycle.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/25/1/157 Words on website: The Journal of Neuroscience Disintegration of the
Sleep-Wake Cycle and Circadian Timing in Huntington's Disease
http://www.news-medical.net/?id=9421
Words on website: Brain
system that controls the sleep/wake cycle might also play a role in regulating
appetite and metabolism
http://www.revolutionhealth.com/conditions/mental-behavioral-health/anxiety/relaxation-techniques/index?s_kwcid=ContentNetwork|1019678004 Words
on website: Ways to relax your
body
http://www.revolutionhealth.com/conditions/mental-behavioral-health/anxiety/relaxation-techniques/relax Words
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